EU Battery Strategy

By Adrien BEAUFILS, Ginevra BORGHI, Oscar BRUNZELL, Serena PENNAROLI, Alix POUGET-ABADIE, Dilhan SCHRÖRS

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Introduction

The EU finds itself at a critical juncture in the global race for battery technology and production capacity. Most of the supply chain, including raw materials, processing, and manufacturing, is dominated by non-EU actors, particularly China, which controls 75% of global production.

Yet, batteries are at the core of the European Union’s energy transition, forming a crucial link in achieving the ambitious goals of the European Green Deal. They are essential for decarbonizing sectors like transportation, energy, and industry by providing reliable energy storage for renewable sources. Batteries ensure the stability and reliability of the grid, addressing renewable energy’s variability. Annual battery sales reached $116 billion in 2022, just under half of which were in the mobility sector, in which the lithium-ion battery has become the preferred choice.

The EU Battery Strategy is a strategic imperative for several reasons, including economic growth, reducing technological dependence and ensuring European sovereignty, as batteries are at the heart of geoeconomic competition for control and access to strategic industries. First, with the demand for batteries projected to grow exponentially, the European Commission estimates that the European market potential could be worth up to EUR 250 billion annually from 2025 onwards. McKinsey estimates that production of lithium-ion batteries will reach almost 4,700 gWh in 2030, compared with less than 500 gWh in 2021, a nine-fold increase. This booming market presents an opportunity to create high-value jobs and strengthen Europe’s industrial competitiveness. Secondly, if Europe does not act decisively, it risks becoming overly dependent on external suppliers for a technology critical to its energy and mobility future, making Europe vulnerable to supply chain disruptions or geopolitical tensions. The geoeconomic dimension relates to infrastructure, with massive investments being made in gigafactories, raw materials, where control over resources like lithium, cobalt, and nickel has become a geopolitical battleground, and research and innovation, where countries are pouring billions into R&D.

The status quo in battery production is alarming. The EU heavily relies on imports of key components in battery production, has limited domestic mining and refining capacity compared to competitors and an underdeveloped recycling infrastructure for used batteries, which is essential for achieving a circular economy.  Chinese overcapacity in battery cell production means battery prices in China are now 50 per cent cheaper than elsewhere. With the current import tariff to buy batteries into Europe at only 1.3% and most of the supply chain already developed in non-EU countries, the business case for made-in-EU batteries is significantly diminished.

Figure 1. Supply dependency of materials along the value chain for electric vehicles batteries. Source: JRC

The dependence on imports of raw materials is a long-established problem (see figure 1), lithium being no exception, as the EU currently accounts for only 0.1% of world production. Prospects for European production of high-value battery components like cathodes, anodes, electrolytes, and separators are even grimmer. 

The EU’s battery strategy faces several challenges, summarised as the “4S”: Scope, Scale, Speed, and Sustainability. Developing the entire value chain and securing necessary investments are significant hurdles. Regulatory delays and high costs of sustainable practices also pose challenges. In this context, the European Union has developed a strategy to successfully maintain a sector critical to the continent’s industrial future, energy transition, and critical infrastructure.

How does the EU Battery Strategy intend to develop an innovative, competitive and sustainable battery ecosystem in Europe? 

This essay will start by explaining the 4 key components of the EU Battery Strategy: The European Battery Alliance as a forerunner, the EU Batteries Regulation of 2023, a comprehensive framework addressing the lifecycle of batteries from design to disposal, the Raw Materials Strategy, and the Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda. The essay will then focus on how this strategy is financed before developing a critical assessment of the situation.

European Battery Alliance as a Forerunner 

The “European Battery Alliance” (EBA) was launched in October 2017 by the European Commission (notably Vice-President Maroš Šefčovič) together with EU member states, EIB, industry, and scientific community. In total, the scope of the EBA includes over 800 actors in industry and innovation, from mining to recycling, with the common objective of developing an “innovative, competitive, and sustainable battery value chain in Europe” (see figure 2). The stated goal is to “build a strong pan-European battery industry to capture a new market worth 250B€/year in 2025”. A complete European battery value chain would serve the dual purpose of promoting a competitive industry respectively clean energy transition. 

EBA is a forerunner in two senses: 

i. Joint battery investment in an industry alliance, the exception rather than the rule with member states usually acting in isolation concerning clean technologies; 

ii. EBA Academy was established to address critical skill shortages in the battery sector, acting as a precedent promoting similar academies under the Net-Zero Industry Act (NZIA) in areas of solar photovoltaics, hydrogen, raw materials, and wind technology. 

Figure 2. Battery Value Chain.

In 2018, the European Commission adopted an extensive set of concrete measures (6 priority areas) with the “Strategic Action Plan on Batteries” under the framework of the EBA. Developed in consultation with the stakeholders listed above, the Action Plan built on the industry-led approach whereby EU industry players have themselves adopted and are starting to implement targeted actions. The Action Plan provided context and justification for the new Battery Regulation proposed in December 2020.

Battery Regulation 2023/1542

The New Batteries Regulation (2023/1542) was adopted as law and entered into force on August 17^th 2023, built around three main objectives: 

i. “strengthening the functioning of the internal market by ensuring a level playing field through a common set of rules”; 

ii. “promoting a circular economy”; 

iii. “reducing environmental and social impacts throughout all stages of the battery life cycle”. 

The regulation represented a key achievement, bringing forward the circular economy and zero pollution ambitions of the EU, while strengthening the EU’s strategic autonomy. The new regulation effectively repealed the EU’s 2006 Batteries Directive (2006/66/EC), the latter being insufficient in terms of meeting current demands, such as circularity, sustainability, and keeping pace with technological developments. 

The New Batteries Regulation applies to all batteries on the EU market with provisions and mandatory requirements relating to sustainability, safety, labeling, marking, and information. The Regulation applies since February 18th 2024, including specific rules which are going to roll out progressively: 

• Scope and Coverage: applies to all batteries, including “portable”, “starting, lightning and ignition” (SLI), “industrial”, “electric vehicle” (EV), respectively “light means of transport” (LMT) batteries (e.g. e-bikes and scooters); 

• Sustainability Requirements: low carbon footprint rules for batteries, reduction of reliance on harmful substances (notably mercury and cadmium), performance and durability parameters, respectively increased use of recycled materials, with mandatory recycled content targets including 16 percent for cobalt, 85 percent for lead, 6 percent for lithium, respectively 6 percent for nickel by 2031; 

• Recycling and Collection: end-of life management of batteries: i.a. new collection targets for waste portable batteries, respectively facilitating the repurposing of industrial and electric-vehicle batteries as stationary energy storage batteries (also safety of stationary battery energy storage systems); mandatory collection rates, including 63 percent for portable batteries by 2027 respectively 73 percent by 2030, and specific targets for lithium recovery and other critical materials; recycling efficiency targets, including 80 percent for nickel-cadmium, 75 percent for lead-acid, respectively 65 percent for lithium-based batteries by 2025, higher targets by 2030; 

• Replaceability: portable batteries in devices must be removable and replaceable by users by 2027, whereas LMT batteries must be replaceable by professionals; 

• Social and Environmental Responsibility: requirements for companies in identifying and mitigating social and environmental risks in raw material sourcing, focus on cobalt, lithium, etc.; 

• Labeling and Transparency: by 2026-2027, all batteries must contain detailed information accessed through a QR code, a “Battery Passport”, i.e. an electronic exchange system for battery information (production, testing, recycling, etc.); 

• Additional Obligations on Economic Operators: due diligence respectively product requirements schemes, green public procurement, conformity assessment, notification of conformity assessment, market surveillance, respectively economic instruments. 

Notable is that a ‘general regulatory framework’ was established with the Regulation, and as such more technical aspects require the adoption of secondary regulation (i.e. delegated respectively implementing acts) 2024 onwards for full operationality..

Raw Materials to Produce Batteries – EU’s Lithium Strategy 

The EU recognizes lithium as a critical raw material for advancing its green energy transition, particularly in the battery sector. Lithium-ion batteries are crucial to the decarbonization of transport and energy systems, with their use in electric vehicles (EVs) and energy storage systems expected to drive significant market growth. The EU’s lithium strategy is built upon the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) and principles of the EU’s circular economy, aiming to reduce reliance on imports, mitigate environmental impacts, and foster a resilient value chain.

                     Figure 3. Forecast of global Supply-Demand balance for lithium [t LCE]

Strategic Objectives for Lithium            

The EU’s dependency on imported lithium from countries such as China, Chile, and Argentina expose it to supply chain disruptions and price volatility. The CRMA paves the way for the EU industry to deliver 10% of extraction, 40% of refining, and 15% of recycling of key minerals, including lithium, by 2030. These goals are meant to address the EU’s dependence on imports, with most refined lithium sourced from outside the EU. Domestic production in the EU remains limited, with the primary contribution coming from Portugal with 380 metric tons of lithium in 2023. Developing domestic capacity for lithium extraction and refining is therefore critical to reducing this vulnerability.

The Role of Circular Economy in EU’s Lithium Strategy

The circular economy plays a pivotal role in the EU’s lithium strategy. Recycling is identified as a key mechanism for reducing dependency on primary raw materials (PRMs), which are often imported from geopolitically sensitive regions​. By converting battery waste into secondary raw materials (SRMs), the EU aims to close the gap in the lithium value chain. However, less than 1% of lithium is currently recycled, pointing to significant untapped potential​. A significant barrier to effective recycling is the inadequate collection of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries, which restricts access to recyclable materials and hinders the creation of a robust recycling stream. The practice of repurposing batteries for second-life applications, such as energy storage systems, delays the recycling process and postpones the availability of critical raw materials, including lithium, for new production cycles​. To support sustainable battery production, the EU is advancing Material Flow Analysis (MFA) models to evaluate the availability of SRMs from recycled batteries. 

Strategy for Research and Innovation 

Although the regulations, acts, and policy measures adopted under the EU Battery Strategy have a broad scope, they all require strong support from research and innovation to achieve their objectives. To this end, the previous strategies have been replaced by a single Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA), which serves as the foundational document for the EU Battery Strategy’s research and innovation efforts, alongside the Batteries Europe Roadmap and Battery 2030+.

Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA)

The Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) updates the context of the European value chain, aligning new EU objectives and policy measures with the research needs outlined in the Batteries Europe roadmap. It also revises the relevant R&I areas, setting a multi-year agenda with timelines for each activity and assessing research projects eligible for funding under the BATT4EU initiative.

Building on the general direction of previous agendas, this strategy indicates six imperatives:

• Ensure that (BATT4EU) research results reach gigafactories and the markets.
• Increase the strategic autonomy of Europe by reducing the reliance on foreign critical raw materials.
• Improve battery affordability to accelerate the green transition and keep the European industry competitive.
• Improve the flexibility of battery manufacturing and recycling systems.
• Implement a safe and sustainable by design framework for batteries.
• Support the continuity of excellent European battery research and academic-industrial cooperation.

Moreover, this strategy highlights key R&I areas essential for a competitive and sustainable European battery manufacturing sector. These include raw materials, with a focus on secondary materials, recycling, and bio-based alternatives. In advanced materials, the aim is to improve energy density, reduce costs, and enhance safety. Battery design efforts target longer lifespan, safety, and smart features. Manufacturing processes prioritize efficiency, adaptability, and environmental impact. Tailored solutions are developed for mobility and stationary storage applications. Recycling aims to maximize material recovery and support a circular economy. Transversal topics like sustainability, safety, and education are crucial, alongside efforts in coordination to streamline EU collaboration and align initiatives with policy goals.

Battery 2030+ Roadmap (2023)

The Battery 2030+ Roadmap outlines research actions to transform battery research by leveraging disruptive digital technologies, focusing on material science, manufacturing, and recycling across various chemistries. The initiative aims to develop ultra-high-performance, safe, affordable, and sustainable batteries, enhance European industry with breakthrough technologies, and lead in both established and emerging markets, focusing on six key areas: BIG, MAP, Sensing, Self-healing, Manufacturability, and Recyclability.

The initiative focuses on three overarching themes, each covering key research areas essential for developing sustainable batteries: accelerated discovery of battery interfaces and materials, integration of smart functionalities, and cross-cutting areas for future chemistries.

Finally, this strategy is based on a chemistry neutral approach to facilitate the invention of the batteries of the future. Its goal is not to develop a specific battery chemistry, but to create a generic toolbox for transforming the way we develop and design batteries. 

Batteries Europe R&I Roadmap (2023)

This final document offers a comprehensive overview of the research activities that need to be addressed in Europe in the short (2025), medium (<2030), and long term (2030+). It includes recommendations for implementation at academic, professional, and public levels, extending beyond the European level to encompass national and regional programs.

In a brief and non-exhaustive summary, it can be stated that in the short term (2023-2025), the emphasis will be on attracting researchers through grants, developing specialized curricula, and aligning vocational training with industry needs. Public awareness of battery safety and recycling will also be raised. By the mid-term (<2030), EU-wide standards for battery-related education will be established, with increased mobility for researchers and expanded vocational training opportunities. In the long term (2030+), the sector will have a fully integrated European research and education network, offering continuous, flexible training, while fostering a skilled workforce and broad public understanding of battery safety. This roadmap ensures collaboration and adaptability to meet evolving industry demands.

Financing the Strategy 

The funding for the European Battery Strategy is as diverse as the number of projects it encompasses. Indeed, the sources of funding foreseen are varied and take different forms, whether they come from public or private funds. 

European funds 

The EU budget contributes to this strategy, notably through the “Horizon 2020” research and innovation program in the form of a call for funding. During the 2014-2020 period, grants and loan guarantees exceeding €1.7 billion were granted under the EU budget

Many other more or less direct sources of European funding come from other funds such as the ERDF and the Innovation Fund, which is financed by EU Emission Trading System revenues. The Innovation Fund is not dedicated only to batteries, but it was announced in December 2023 that the Commission would implement a dedicated instrument under this fund that will provide up to €3 billion for 3 years. Moreover, the Just Transition Mechanism, the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF), the LIFE program, the NextGenerationEU recovery plan, the EFSI, and the InvestEU program, have either a strategic and economic objective or an environmental goal and contribute to finance the strategy. 

Member states contributions through IPCEI

As part of the European industrial policy, the Commission approved two important Projects of Common European interest (IPCEI), one in December 2019 and the other in January 2021. IPCEIs allow Member States to select national companies that will receive subsidies from their national budgets. Hence, state support to battery strategy amounted to 6 billion euros between 2019 and 2021. 

Private funds 

According to the European Commission in 2019: “The scale of the investment challenge is such that it cannot be met by public finance alone; hence the importance of effective mechanisms to attract private capital. A combination of public and private sources is therefore essential.”. 

For example, in 2018, the European Commission and Breakthrough Energy, which is a group of organizations that aims to accelerate the energy transition, launched a new model of public-private cooperation “to catalyse more direct private investment into breakthrough European low-carbon technology companies and innovators that provide solutions to climate change”.

EIB Support 

The EIB is actively involved in the economic development of the European battery value chain by providing loans, guarantees, and equity-type funding through the InnovFin Energy Demo Projects facility (EDP). It enables the EIB to finance first-of-kind demonstration projects contributing to the energy transition and supporting the circular economy before being commercialized. According to the EIB: “the goal is to help bridge the ‘valley of death’ from demonstration to commercialization” that these projects have to deal with. The financing guaranteed by the EIB is limited to 50% of the total project cost. In 2023, the EIB increased its support to batteries development projects up to €1,6 billion. Over the past 5 years, the EIB has financed this type of project for a total of €2,8 billion.  It is known for its involvement in numerous projects, including Northvolt, a Swedish company, which received around €1.7 billion between 2019 and 2024 from the EIB. 

Assessment of the EU battery strategy 

The Special Report on The EU’s industrial policy on batteries made by the European Court of Auditors provides many insights regarding the assessment on the EU Battery Strategy. Drafted in 2023, it highlights the importance of developing a robust battery industry in the EU to support the transition to clean energy, while strengthening competitiveness in the automotive sector. The report focuses on three main areas: the relevancy to the needs of European stakeholders, battery production, and public funding.

Regarding the relevancy to the needs of EU stakeholders, the report recognizes that the action plan is supported by the European automotive and energy and it is in line with similar strategies in Member States. Moreover, the action plan implementation delivered key instruments in support of the EU battery value chain. However, the data on which the Commission is basing its monitoring of the battery value chain is limited and often outdated, and it remains difficult to assess the contribution of European batteries to the climate neutrality goals.

In the field of battery production, the projection is of an increase from 44 Gigawatt per hour in 2020 to 1200 GWh by 2030; if reached, this could deliver up to 16 million electric vehicles. However, the deployment of this projected production capacity could be slowed down, for many reasons. First, the time lag from the opening of production facilities to operating at full scale, e.g., in 2021 only 16 GWh (26%) of the announced 62 GWh battery production capacity in the EU was realized. Secondly, battery manufacturers might choose to move their business in other more competitive countries, such as the US, where the Inflation Reduction Act and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act provide substantial subsidies for domestic production of minerals, batteries and electric vehicles. Moreover, the rising costs for energy and raw materials could make batteries, and so electric vehicles, unaffordable for many, thus lowering demand for electric vehicles and reducing the incentive to invest in production facilities. Another issue is that self-sufficiency in key battery raw materials and refining capacity is very low. In fact, the EU depends significantly on international markets for primary raw materials essential to batter production, and the average import reliance for five key materials (cobalt, nickel, lithium, manganese and natural graphite) stands at 78%. While the dependency on refined materials is generally lower, at 61%, still the EU’s consumption of refined lithium is entirely reliant on imports. In the graph below the EU import reliance on selected battery materials is shown.

Figure 4. Primary raw materials for the EU in 2023

Regarding the last part, public funding, the European Court of Auditors found that there is a lack by the Commission of a process for consolidating the different funding streams, making it more difficult to ensure that adequate coordination and appropriate targeting of support measures are put in place. Moreover, the IPCEIs (Important Projects of Common European Interest), the two projects that were approved in November 2019 and January 2021, are mostly funded by three state members, Germany, France, and Italy, respectively accounting for 87% and 83% of the state aid. This means there is a lack of a level playing field, and so this encompasses the risk that companies from certain countries get an easier access to IPCEIs.

In its conclusion, the report recommends that the Commission’s promotion of the battery strategy has been effective, despite the issues highlighted above. It recommends addressing them, especially securing access to raw materials, monitoring, funding and its coordination.   

Conclusion 

The European Battery Strategy represents a crucial step towards securing the region’s technological and economic future. Nevertheless, the success of this strategy depends on continued collaboration between governments, industry stakeholders, and research institutions. While challenges remain, as the Northvolt case has shown, particularly in raw material sourcing and technological scalability, EU’s focus on circular economy principles and environmental responsibility offers a promising path forward. The strategy could not only reduce Europe’s dependency on external suppliers but also create a more sustainable and competitive market. As the global demand for clean energy solutions rises, the EU proactive approach will be key to shaping the future of battery technology and green mobility.

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