Youth & Leaders Summit 2025

17:30 | Welcome & Opening Remarks 

• Luis Vassy, President, Sciences Po
• Arancha González, Dean, PSIA

17:45 | Keynote Speech > Watch the replay

• Mathias Cormann, Secretary-General, OECD 

Student Presenter: Max Cocard, Master in International Governance and Diplomacy, PSIA 

> Watch it live!

18:30 | Presentation of Pol.is audience participation tool by Student Rapporteurs

18:40 | Break

18:45 | Panel - On the Road to Seville: A Financial System Fit for Sustainable Development 

Student Presenter: Andrés Gutiérrez, Master in International Development, PSIA 

Moderator: Paola Subacchi, Incoming Chairholder, Chair in Sovereign Debt and Finance, Sciences Po  

• Javier Oest Fernández, Student, Master in International Development, PSIA
• Rémy Rioux, Director-General, Agence Française de Développement; Chairman of Finance in Common
• Pascal Saint-Amans, Partner, Brunswick Group
• Vera Songwe, Chairperson, The Liquidity and Sustainability Facility
• Thierry Watrin, Lead, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa’s Sustainable Debt Coalition

Amphiteater Chapsal

17:15 | Ted Talk - Human institutions: Transforming Societal Systems with Compassion

• Disa Jironet Loewe, Public Prosecutor, Netherlands Public Prosecution Service

Student Presenter: Tommaso De Bellis, Master in Human Rights and Humanitarian Action, PSIA

17:30 | 60 minutes with - The Future of the Multilateral Trading System 

• Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Director-General, World Trade Organization 

Moderator: Steven Erlanger, Chief diplomatic correspondent in Europe, The New York Times
 

Amphiteater Sorel-Leroy Beaulieu

19:00 | The New York Times Debate - Do we still need the UN?

Student presenters: Deniz Gezer, Master in Human Rights and Humanitarian Action, PSIA; Elena Kloppe, Master in International Governance and Diplomacy, PSIA

Moderator: Stephen Dunbar-Johnson, President, International of The New York Times Company

• Antonio de Aguiar Patriota, Ambassador of Brazil to the United Kingdom 
• Hugh Dugan, Former Senior Director for International Organization Affairs on the US National Security Council
• Melissa Fleming, Under-Secretary-General for Global Communications, United Nations
• Stefano Sannino, Former Secretary-General, European External Action Service, European Union

15:00 | 60 minutes with - International Cooperation to Protect Human Rights in a More Fractured World

• Agnès Callamard, Secretary General, Amnesty International 

Student presenter: Karen Hagen, Master in International Security, PSIA

Moderator: Antoine Bernard, Director, Advocacy & Assistance, Reporters Sans Frontières; PSIA Faculty

> Watch it live!

16:15 | Panel - Multilateralism and the New World Order

Student Presenter: William Obiora Obiagwu, Master in International Governance and Diplomacy, PSIA
Moderator: Vuk Jeremić, Editor in Chief, Horizons; former President of the United Nations General Assembly

• HRH Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, Chairman of the Board, King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies
• Isabella Baker, Student, Master in International Security, PSIA
• John W.H. Denton, Secretary-General, International Chamber of Commerce
• María Fernanda Espinosa, Executive Director, Global Women Leaders Voices; former President of the United Nations General Assembly
• Zhang Weiwei, Director of China Institute, Fudan University 

17:45 | Break

18:00 | Next generation expectations: the future of international cooperation

• Cristina Gallach, Secretary of the Board of GWL Voices; former UN Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information
• In conversation with student rapporteurs presenting the results of pol.is

19:00 | Concluding Remarks by Arancha González, Dean, PSIA

This article was written by Upamanyu DUTTA, master's student in Environmental Policy.

A Decade of Change - From Optimism to Fragmentation

‘Geopolitics is back with a vengeance’, declared Arancha González, Dean of PSIA, as the School inaugurated the 10th edition of its Youth and Leaders Summit (YLS). Vengeful indeed as we can symbolize from the global headlines on atrocious war crimes, geopolitical flashes, climate crisis, and rising trade conflicts. Global rivalries have been omnipresent since the first edition of the YLS in 2016, but  we’ve also seen some important landmark achievements - including the creation of the 2030 SDGs, the Paris Climate Agreement, and the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement - which have helped to maintain the sanctity of world order.
Almost 10 years later, the world stands witness to an overarching fragmentation in international cooperation, where fears and polarizations are giving way to grievances: extreme tensions between the US and China, open conflicts in the Middle East, the ongoing Russian war with Ukraine, socio-political clashes in Sudan, rising contentions on the ethical use of AI etc. As a result, trust in global institutions is at an all time low. Hence, for the leaders of the present and future, it becomes increasingly fundamental to ask: ‘What Future for International Cooperation?’ This question provided the core theme of YLS 2025. 

Hope Amidst Chaos

With multipolar geopolitical contentions wreaking havoc around the world, it is reflexive to feel despondent, however, ‘in the middle of all geopolitical turmoil, there is still hope’ says the Dean. This hope should be a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity of the people and planet. ‘Hope’, that is fuelled through advocacy and cooperation on tenacious ceasefires, food security, nuclear non-proliferation, climate action, artificial intelligence, or world trade.The summit’s inaugural location, the historic Emile Boutmy Amphitheatre, served as a symbolic reminder of Sciences Po’s foundational vision—to have a sustainable and positive impact on global politics. Luis Vassy, President of Sciences Po, invoked the defeat of France against Prussia and the resilience of the newly established Third Republic, raising a timeless question: ‘Is a democratic system strong enough to withstand autocratic challenges?’ This question remains at the heart of contemporary political discourse. The theme is central to SciencesPo’s intellectual inquiry and as such, the institutional ethos resembles ‘hope’ even in the most turbulent geopolitical landscape.

YLS as a Platform for Action

The impact of the Youth & Leaders Summit 2025 extends far beyond its three days, setting the stage for continued dialogue on geopolitical gridlocks  and shaping the discourse for future policy debates and international cooperation. The Summit provides the opportunity for current global leaders to engage with the next generation, who will not only work alongside them but may eventually succeed them in leading international institutions. Upholding the spirit of democracy and incorporating new technologies, the 10th edition of the YLS also presented for the first time Pol.is: an open-source tool for participants to engage directly with the questions “What Future for International Cooperation?”  by enabling them to present anonymous thoughts and vote on popular motions presented throughout the three days of the Summit. 
As the world stands at the crossroads of crisis and cooperation, the YLS 2025 does not merely seek answers but also the questions that will define the path ahead. The answer to the questions “What Future of International Cooperation?” will be a conversation to be continued, and ultimately, lies in what we choose to build together.

This article was written by Upamanyu DUTTA, master's student in Environmental Policy.

A Challenge Worth Pursuing

The Secretary-General of the OECD, Mathias Cormann, opened his speech by acknowledging that ‘International cooperation is extremely hard and frustratingly slow.’ Addressing the ensuing global gridlock on geopolitical stability, he pointed out that international cooperation, by definition, involves nation-states. Each of these states is responsible for its own population, history, values, and, more precisely, diverse political interests. The side effect? A seemingly glacial and inefficient process of decision making for global agendas. 
Cormann leads the OECD, an organization that facilitated the reconstruction of Europe post-World War II, including his hometown in Europe. 

The OECD & Policymaking

The key challenge for international cooperation, as Cormann noted, is that countries fail to negotiate political compromises. Herein, he mentioned the role of OECD as a moderator between nations bringing together 38 member countries around the world, all of which share democratic values and the need for social well-being. 
He said he believed in ‘better policies for better life’, as is reflective of OECD’s evidence-based methodology in policy making. In this regard, he also talked about the importance of accessible data and how the OECD acts as a global repository of comparative data for different policy choices. By collecting, analyzing, and referencing empirical evidence, the OECD becomes more persuasive in its effort to bring together the member States.

Beyond Cooperation - Climate, AI & Trade

Cormann expanded the dialogue and stated that contemporary international co-operation goes beyond the traditional notions of peace & security. He contextualised it by stating that even for businesses operating across borders, a non-cooperative atmosphere would result in unabated taxation and tariffs. Herein, international institutions act as a buffer to create an accountable and transparent transaction mechanism. He further underscored the inevitability of international cooperation for individual nation states to ensure a just mechanism for cross-border affairs. 
On climate change, Cormann mentioned OECD’s optimised efforts towards tackling the climate crisis - the role of the Inclusive Forum on Carbon Mitigation Approaches (IFCMA), emissions monitoring and informed climate policymaking through comparative assessments.  
In the realm of AI, he mentioned the need to establish clear standards that align with the democratic values of OECD member states. He said that the organization stands prepared to refine regulations for this rapidly evolving technology. He further acknowledged OECD’s early stance on the human-centric development of AI. 
For trade, Cormann said that trade discussions are increasingly focused on the fragmentation of agreements. He commented on the ‘value’ of trade being fundamental for socio-economic equilibrium wherein a just and sustainable development is impossible without access to global markets. 

Persisting Through the Challenges

Throughout his address, the former Prime Minister of Australia reinforced that however frustrating and slow international cooperation may seem to be, it is the only way to build a peaceful global order. ‘ What is the alternative other than to keep trying?’ said Cormann. He accepted the fact that news on genocide, war, hate crimes and political conflicts dominating the headlines can make us feel downcasted, however, we must keep faith on international cooperation while trying to make it even better. 
Returning to his opening message, he reiterated that while ‘international cooperation is challenging,’ history has shown that people of goodwill and commitment have come together to create tangible impacts for a better planet. Concluding on an ambitious note, he stated that ‘the only viable path forward is to confront the challenges of international cooperation head-on, rather than sidestepping them.’

This article was written by Ján CIPÁR, master's student in International Energy.

The reform of the global financial system is essential for achieving sustainable development, yet the existing financial architecture fails to provide adequate resources, particularly for the Global South. Persistent challenges in financing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) remain, exacerbated by the debt crisis. As underscored by the student presenter Andrés Gutiérrez, commitments from the Global North have not been fully met, leaving significant gaps in development financing.

As a moderator Paola Subacchi, the Incoming Chair in Sovereign Debt and Finance at Sciences Po emphasized at the beginning of the panel that development finance is at a critical juncture due to two major issues: first, unfulfilled financial commitments, and second, the growing resource demands of sustainable development. The risk of failing to achieve the SDGs by 2030 remains high. Current development assistance stands at $224 billion, or just 0.32% of global GDP, significantly below the 0.7% target. The resulting financing gap calls for innovative approaches to leverage resources more effectively.

Rémy Rioux highlighted the necessity of increasing Official Development Assistance (ODA) to support international justice but noted that "figures are not clear because we added different kinds of financing programs on top of the ODA in 2015", pointing to the complexity created by overlapping definitions and objectives. Meanwhile, PSIA student Javier Oest Fernández warned that the US Senate is considering cutting foreign aid spending, reinforcing the urgency of mobilizing private capital and stressing the importance of blended finance.

Pascal Saint-Amans argued that effective development aid reform requires comprehensive tax system overhauls. "How do you spell aid? TAX," he asserted, emphasizing that merely ODA or other forms of development assistance will drive systemic change unless the tax systems are restructured. However, he acknowledged that "the unfairness of the international tax system can only be reformed by unanimity," highlighting a major barrier to progress. Similarly, Thierry Watrin agreed that "instead of focusing solely on external funding, governments must work towards improving their tax collection systems to increase domestic revenue." He also stressed the importance of a country’s tax-to-GDP ratio, linking it to its ability to generate revenue and sustain debt.

Multilateral development banks (MDBs) have the potential to bridge financing gaps through concessional financing, yet current frameworks remain inadequate. Javier Oest Fernández identified another fundamental issue: "There is not a sufficient pipeline of projects." The current project-based approach has failed to maximize resources, leading to inefficiencies. There is a pressing need for a more strategic, long-term approach rather than the prevailing project-by-project methodology. 
Similarly, Thierry Watrin emphasized three key dimensions—directionality, integration and debt—highlighting that "50% of African governments spend more on reimbursing debt than on healthcare and other essential services." This imbalance underscores the need for restructuring debt frameworks to prioritize sustainable development.

Pascal Saint-Amans further highlighted disparities in global financial markets, stating that "the risk in Barbados and Germany is the same, but you need a much higher return on investment in Barbados due to higher interest rates." This discrepancy underscores the deep inequalities embedded in international finance and the pressing need for fairer lending mechanisms.

Debt sustainability remains a pressing concern. Rémy Rioux noted that many developing countries are caught in a cycle of debt dependency, where high-interest payments prevent them from investing in critical social infrastructure. He called for greater collaboration between international financial institutions and national governments to establish long-term, affordable debt restructuring mechanisms. The significance of accountability in development finance was also emphasized, with Pascal Saint-Amans warning that without clear accountability mechanisms, financing efforts may not lead to actual progress but instead reinforce existing inefficiencies.

Therefore, to create a financial system fit for sustainable development, several key reforms must be prioritized. The global tax system must be restructured to ensure fairness and equity in development financing. Given the limitations of public funding, blended finance strategies should be expanded to attract private sector investment. MDBs must transition from fragmented, project-based investments to a more systematic, long-term financing approach. Additionally, the global debt burden must be reassessed, with a greater emphasis on grants rather than loans to ease financial strain on developing nations. Lastly, increased accountability and transparency are crucial to ensuring that development funds are allocated efficiently and effectively.

As highlighted in the discussions at the Youth & Leaders Summit 2025, a fundamental rethinking of global financial structures is essential to bridge the SDG financing gap and secure sustainable development for all. The path forward requires bold international cooperation, systemic reform, and a renewed commitment to equitable economic structures. Without a concerted global effort, financial constraints will continue to hinder progress toward achieving the SDGs.

This article was written by Amir BONYADI, master's student in Human Rights and Humanitarian Action.

The Challenge of Doubt and Institutional Rigidity

Institutions are “lasting structures and agreements that form the bedrock for how we work as a society and as an International Community”. In her captivating Ted Talk on Human Institutions, Dutch public prosecutor Disa Jironet Loewe points out that during these times of great uncertainty and existential threats, those who wish to drive positive change might sometimes feel a sense of overwhelming powerlessness. With rising authoritarian tendencies, geopolitical conflicts, and misinformation leading to global instability, our world has become increasingly divided. Disinformation and hate speech further lowers drastically trust in institutions. Loewe recognizes that many global institutions operate with great inertia and do not always represent the demands of the populations. “The UN is still subject to the hegemony of the Security Council. The EU is notoriously bureaucratic”. However, she argued that despite their inefficiencies, these institutions remain essential for global peace and stability. 

Human-Centered Institutions as Safeguards

Loewe asserted that institutions, while flawed, act as stabilizing forces against erratic political shifts and protect against rash and destructive decision-making. Loewe emphasized her responsibility as a prosecutor to uphold institutions that protect human rights, particularly those of marginalized groups. Institutions should not merely enforce laws but also uphold human dignity: “Justice isn’t done in a vacuum. There’s always an interaction between the justice system and what’s happening in society”. She described how traditional legal structures often fail to recognize the human complexities behind crimes. Rather than cold, transactional justice, the courtroom should be a place to acknowledge also communal suffering. She called for greater self-awareness and compassion for those who work in institutional roles, and highlightings again that those in the decision-making process should holistically asses the situation of the people affected by the decisions. 

Compassion in the Courtroom

Her more than 15 years of experience as a prosecutor has granted Loewe great insights and transformative experiences. In her TedTalk she shared a case that re-shaped her understanding of justice: A man with no prior criminal record had violently abused his wife, and the traditional courtroom questioning was yielding no meaningful insight. The judge’s approach to pressing him with aggressive and provocative questions only resulted in timid, guarded responses. Frustrated with the lack of progress, Loewe decided to take a shift in her approach, tailoring the questions  more towards an understanding of the person behind the crime. This shift had a profound impact: “Suddenly, tears started streaming down his face as his shame made way for sadness.” He revealed that he had suffered extreme beatings as a child and had never learned another way to process fear and loss. While his actions remained inexcusable, Loewe stressed that understanding his background was crucial to delivering true “justice to a person’s whole story”–a justice beyond punishment. Loewe emphasized that justice must extend beyond punishment to consider healing and rehabilitation. She argued that courtroom experiences should provide victims and perpetrators with a sense of closure and transformation. The courtroom, when used correctly, can strengthen trust in the justice system and society at large, as institutions must be perceived as fair and humane to maintain legitimacy.

A Call to Action for Young Leaders

Looking forward, Loewe urged young professionals not to disengage from institutions but to work towards reform from within. She acknowledged that bureaucracies can feel resistant to change but stressed the importance of persistence. Changemakers must remain committed to making a difference since institutions are only as strong as the people who uphold them.

Now, more than ever, in a world increasingly threatened by authoritarianism and division, institutions must remain strong and adaptable. “At a time when the world appears to become less and less democratic, with some 70% of the world’s population now living under autocratic regimes, we need mechanisms to protect our fundamental rights”. Institutions should evolve to reflect the needs of the people they serve, rather than becoming static and outdated. 
In a passionate call to reform institutions by embedding empathy, humanity, and justice into their foundations, Disa Jironet Loewe  urged young professionals to resist disillusionment, embrace discomfort as a tool for change, and actively work towards shaping a world where institutions genuinely serve and protect the people they were built for.

This article was written by Upamanyu DUTTA, master's student in Environmental Policy.

The Director-General of the WTO, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala steered the second session of the day, moderated by Steven Erlanger, the Chief Diplomatic Correspondent in Europe of the New York Times. The duo delved into a critical discussion on ‘The Future of Multilateral Trading System’. Erlanger set the tone of the discussion by stating that - ‘the WTO was set up in happier times’ and pointing out the potential institutional challenges created due to the ensuing geopolitical complications.

Trump Tariffs & Trade Wars

The American journalist shared his opinion on the trade ideologies of the re-elected Trump presidency mentioningTrump’s obsession with tariffs. “What would you tell President Trump on tariffs?”, Erlanger asked. “One should not try to convince him to not impose tariffs…” responded the Director General explaining that tariffs have situationally varying outcomes and are often unpredictable. She further noted that using tariffs for non-trade purposes can have a leverage for international dialogue. However,she urged against hyperventilating about tariffs. 
“Just chill..” said the Director-General addressing the global business community bracing for tariff ripples in the global market. She called attention to the global leaders that shifting focus on tariffs, will result in ignorance of plausible way-outs ultimately leading to erroneous decisions. The underlying reason - a ‘tit for tat tariff’ reaction is not economically sustainable. The Director-General elaborated that such a trade war could result in a global GDP loss of up to 6.4%, amounting to nearly $6.75 trillion. “It would be like losing the economies of Japan and Korea combined,” said Okonjo-IwealaWhen questioned about establishing boundaries with Trump’s tariff regime, she suggested diplomatic dialogues and negotiations instead of impulsive and retaliatory actions.

China’s Trade Duality

Erlanger shifted the conversation to China’s controversial ‘developed/developing’ position. ‘The issues matter, not the label’ said Okonjo-Iweala as she pointed out that individual nations are entitled to define and tag their developmental status. The ongoing dialogue between China and the WTO revolves around this status and its implications for WTO resources. “It’s okay for China to claim to be ‘developing’” stated the Director General, however, what raises concerns is China’s continued access to WTO resources despite its significant global economic advantage. 
Another interesting question raised by Erlanger was China’s duality in creating independent institutions and gaining a stronghold within existing ones such as the WTO. The Director General termed China’s action as ‘non-contradictory’. She talked about how larger shareholders in multilateral organizations have more influence and as such China’s duality is just reactionary. Unlike others, the WTO works on a consensus-based model, wherein each member nations have an equal voice on policy decisions. However, despite its advantages, the system is vulnerable to veto ruling and consequent gridlocks. “…that is why it takes so long…” admitted Okonjo-Iweala calling for a revamped ‘responsible consensus’ system with enhanced efficiency. 

Beyond Disputes - Reimagining WTO’s Appellate Mechanism

Moving on to the appellate mechanisms of WTO, Okonjo-Iweala remarked that “It is a shame that the WTO got characterised solely by its dispute settlement function.” She emphasized that other critical functions, such as monitoring and negotiation, remain essential. Okonjo-Iweala stated that while WTO is the ‘only court on trade’, which gave it prominence, its broader mission is outlined in its preamble - enhancing living standards, creating employment and supporting sustainable development. 
While the Appellate Body may be dysfunctional, dispute settlement panels are still operational as members bring up new cases. She noted that because of the dysfunction there has been a rise in inter-member dialogues and use of alternative mechanisms like the MPII (introduced by the EU). ‘Dispute settlement is still ongoing’ affirmed Okonjo-Iweala, pointing out the positive spillovers in terms of bilateral talks instead of direct appellate action. Nevertheless, she acknowledged the urgency for a reformed appellate system. 

Decentralizing Trade to Bridging Development Gaps

The discussion then shifted to concerns among developing and least-developed countries (LDCs), highlighting that the system favors developed economies. The Director-General acknowledged this reality, noting that LDCs’ contribution to world trade has stagnated at just 1%. “Trade has lifted 1.5 billion people from poverty,” she stated, “but poorer regions and economies remain disadvantaged—we should admit that.” Why does this trend persist? The issue is twofold. First, the ‘value’ of tradable materials remains low, as many LDCs primarily export raw commodities. “You certainly cannot trade more if you don’t add value to your product,” said Okonjo-Iweala, emphasizing the need to attract investment in manufacturing and product development. Second, these regions struggle to bypass non-tariff barriers imposed by other members. 
A key solution lies in decentralizing hegemonic and geographically concentrated supply chains. She illustrated this with examples: “Ten countries exported 80% of vaccines during the Covid-19 pandemic,… and 90% of semiconductor manufacturing is located in Taiwan,” creating chinks in global resilience. She urged developing nations to leverage their strengths and attract investments to decentralize value chains. She also pointed to the ‘Green Comparative Advantage’ of regions like Africa, which holds 60% of the world’s solar energy potential but attracts only 2% of investment. Proper governance and implementation could enable these regions to process critical materials using clean energy, creating a win-win scenario. In this regard, she emphasized the indispensability of a robust governance framework to attract investment and cited the WTO’s Investment Facilitation for Development Agreement—bringing together 126 countries—as a valuable tool in this effort.

Trade for Climate Action

Addressing humanity’s greatest crisis—climate change—Okonjo-Iweala challenged the dominant notion of trade being inherently ‘climate negative.’ While some aspects may be true due to logistics-related carbon emissions, she asserted, “...we cannot achieve net-zero by 2050 without trade.” The technologies required for reducing carbon emissions must be transported through trade, which in turn creates economies of scale, facilitating the global sharing of these technologies. She highlighted that trade was largely ignored in the drafting of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), despite its untapped potential in combating climate change. Pointing out disparities in tariffs on electric vehicles (EVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, she argued that tariff reforms could incentivize EV adoption and the broader use of clean energy technologies. Okonjo-Iweala also referenced government procurement—a $13 trillion industry—as an avenue for promoting green procurement practices. Additionally, she mentioned the Loss and Damage Fund, citing existing resources like $630 billion from trade discounts on agricultural subsidies and $1.2 trillion in fossil fuel subsidies. 

This article was written by Catherine BURKE, master's student in International Governance and Diplomacy.

The recent onslaught of global crises has further fueled the ongoing debate over the efficacy of international organizations and leads many to question their ability to adequately address them. This question was front of mind at the eagerly anticipated The New York Times debate: Do We Still Need the UN?.  Introducing the argument in support of the UN, PSIA student Elena Kloppe emphasized how the “UN system forms a valuable global safety net”. While establishing the position disfunctions of the UN, however, Deniz Gezer, PSIA Student, asserted that to achieve contemporary relevance and ensure efficacy, the “UN must rejuvenate itself and its charter,” foreshadowing many of the disagreements to come.

The UN - The International Community’s First Line of Defense

UN Under-Secretary-General for Global Communications, Melissa Fleming, argued in support of the UN, invoking her firsthand experience working for the organization. Citing current events, such as the human rights crisis in Gaza, she explained how UN staff across various agencies are currently helping keep over two million people alive in Gaza. Stefano Sannino, former Secretary-General of the European External Action Service, European Union, echoed these sentiments, calling for recognition of the UN’s unique capacity to offer immediate relief, as demonstrated in the Middle East. Given increasing global challenges, Stefano Sannino called for more efficient multilateralism. Although he acknowledged the UN’s inability to solve every problem in the world, Stefano Sannino argued that the UN presents a key first step towards tackling global challenges, while also maintaining a crucial “set of rules”. Melissa Fleming and Stefano Sannino’s words and experiences served as an important reminder that whenever an emergency hits, it is the UN’s frontline staff that provides integral support on the ground, covering basic needs. According to Melissa Flemming, the cost of three billion dollars that it takes to run the UN is compareable to the price of a “bag of potato chips” within the field of international governance,  and thereby an invaluable expense.

The UN as a Force for the Future or Relic of the Past

Many of the criticisms levelled at the UN centered around the institution itself, as Hugh Dugan, former Senior Director for International Organization Affairs on the US National Security Council, proclaimed “we need the spirit of the United Nations, but not the organization”. He argued that the UN in its present form is ineffective and bureaucratic, making it reminiscent of an “autocratic deepstate”. Hugh Dugan further questioned the disproportionate power of the Secretary General and the politicization of the role, particularly in contrast to the President of the General Assembly position, which he identified as being grossly underfunded. 
To expand the argument, Antonio de Aguiar Patriota, Ambassador of Brazil to the UK, focused on why the UN currently is not fit for purpose and raised concerns over “systematic frequent violations of international law with impunity” triggering a tipping point for theinternational community. He also emphasized the necessity of incorporating more representative mechanisms within the UN and expanding the Security Council to include underrepresented regions of the world, such as Africa and Latin America, rather than remain entrenched in post-war power structures. Antonio de Aguiar Patriota strongly advocated for greater consideration of climate-related issues within the contemporary UN. Arguing that when the UN Charter was negotiated in 1945, the threat of climate change was not taken into account, he therefore suggested renegotiating the UN Charter to mandate global responsibility to address the climate and the creation of a permanent climate council. Although COP 2030 will be hosted in his home country of Brazil, Antonio de Aguiar Patriota expressed skepticism about the COP system’s utility, labeling it outdated. In contrast, Melissa Fleming previously noted the UN’s centrality in the fight against climate change, referencing its role in negotiating The Paris Agreement, which she argued not only reduced emissions, but provided an important “blueprint to states, companies, and the world” going forward.

Reforming for the Future

Despite significant disagreement, common ground was reached among the speakers on the necessity of reform within the UN. While Hugh Dugan and Antonio de Aguiar Patriota lobbied for comprehensive transformation of the UN structure, Melissa Fleming and Stefano Sannino supported more modest improvements. Stefano Sannino agreed, for example, that the Security Council could be expanded to achieve greater representation, before ultimately stressing the significance of the UN’s existence, despite its flaws. In closing the debate, Stepehen Dunbar-Johnson reflected on “the hidden stories of the UN”  that were discussed, namely its capacity for “saving lives, providing food, nourishing”. After a riveting and tense debate, the audience narrowly voted to in favour of the UN, as the important question posed by Melissa Fleming in her concluding remarks, “who would save those lives if not for the UN,” went unanswered. 

This article was written by Gabriel da Silva TERRA, master’s student in Human Rights and Humanitarian Action.

Quote: Agnès Callamard: “As a head of a civil society organization, I am absolutely determined to see this period of insecurity and instability as one [in which] we cannot be silent and not be unseen”

An Era of Historical Transformations

As PSIA student presenter Karen Hagen wisely observed, human rights are not a one-time achievements. The promotion of peace and human rights require long-term planning and commitment, as neither of them are static or permanent victories. As a consequence  PSIA Scientific AdvisorAntoine Bernard, highlights that we need to constantly brainstorm how international cooperation strategies can uphold these values, especially in light of a deteriorating international order. 
Situating the present moment in world history, Agnès Callamard, Secretary General of Amnesty International, identified the current period as one of decisive transformations: Discussing the global disregard for the UN Charter, she claimed that “We allowed those institutions and the glue that brought us together to melt, to be eaten progressively.” From the Secretary General’s point of view, the US War on Terror, the Russian aggression of Ukraine, Israel's breaches of international law in Palestine, and now the election of US President Donald Trump have precipitated the world into a new  era of destruction. Tthe challenge now is not about holding onto optimism, but about avoiding the abyss. Drawing a parallel to the 1930s, she argued that despite the instability, we can hopefully still escape what happened between 1938 and 1945.

Resisting Infringements on Rights

In tandem with the breaches of compliance of international scale, government authorities across the world are sabotaging human rights in the domestic sphere. As Callamard highlighted, with the prospect of a new world order, multiple actors are trying to maximize their influence to position themselves as powerful players in the new arena. With little regard to international obligations, the hurdles become manifold: levels of inequality are rising, attacks on civil and political rights are growing, and severe retrenchment practices are compromising public welfare. 
Amidst these escalating issues and the erosion of checks and balances within national societies, Callamard called on civil society to defend its rights and play its activist role. While the playing field might be extremely unequal, with great power concentrated in the hands of a few, she reminded the audience that “some of the most powerful machines can be stopped with a little grain of sand–who is to tell us we cannot be that grain of sand?” Building cooperation within our communities does not only symbolize an act of resistance, but an act of collective support. If we do not fight for each other, we are all left vulnerable to being targeted individually.

Creating and Reforming

In terms of building a new world order that enshrines human rights commitment, Callamard asserted that the term “resisting” does not imply everything must be abolished. The system built in 1948 with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a “beautiful legacy” that emerged from the ashes of World War II, and she strongly advocates to do everything in our civil power to carry the document’s  fundamental principles into this new era. However, Callamard stressed the importance of critically assessing which organizations should be preserved to fulfill that premise. While the removal of certain institutions may seem self-evident, the potential of others could be enhanced by reforms. Thus, we must have the courage to ask ourselves difficult questions: Which UN treaties do we want to maintain? How can we make international institutions more equitable? Which international cooperation system needs to survive to help us avoid falling into the abyss? While safeguarding human rights principles is essential, the institutions through which this is achieved remain open to discussion.

Impartiality in Human Rights Advocacy 
Student questions brought to attention the politicization of human rights and the new set of challenges it introduces, emphasizing the resulting vulnerability of these fundamental protections. Addressing the position of Amnesty International, the largest human rights NGO, Callamard explained that this politicization has not only rendered civil society organizations more fragile, but also more susceptible to criticism for their impartial approach. Many public figures and institutions, for example, have attacked Amnesty International for partisanship as a result of its commitment to supporting victims in both sides of international conflicts. Yet, as Callamard observes, the moment civil society organizations reject victims for being on the “wrong” side, they instead become charities. While some people might be driven more by solidarity, Amnesty International continues committed to the impartial principles of international law and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Fighting Power Imbalances and Neocolonialism

When confronted with the arguments that the international system serves mainly Western interests, Callamard recognized: “On the disenchanted people, they are right.” The older international system did grant privileges to their key members, though we must remember that some of them, such as China, were not Western states. A binary approach between West and East, North and South, is often unproductive, as it fuels polarization and overlooks complex dynamics. The Secretary-General defended that these dichotomies are routinely instrumentalized by those seeking to dismantle the system. The solutions to these challenges lie not in division, but in a renewed dedication to cooperation and diplomacy. 

This article was written by Amir BONYADI, master's student in Human Rights and Humanitarian Action.

Setting the Stage - Crisis of Multilateralism and the Geopolitical Recession

In a time of deep uncertainty and rapid change, the panel opens a hopeful call for global cooperation to unify diverse voices for a more resilient and just future. PSIA student William Obiora Obiagwu introduced the discussion by calling for a reimagination of international cooperation as a pragmatic, transformative force that demands greater inclusivity and progress to build a future where every generation can thrive in justice and hope.

The discussion featured Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud; Isabella Baker, a PSIA student in International Security; John W.H. Denton, Secretary-General of the International Chamber of Commerce; María Fernanda Espinosa, Executive Director of Global Women Leaders Voices and former UN General Assembly President; and Zhang Weiwei, Director of the China Institute at Fudan University. The session was moderated by Vuk Jeremić, Editor in Chief, Horizons and former President of the United Nations General Assembly, who set the stage for the discussion by drawing a parallel between economic cycles and geopolitics. While economic cycles are well defined, “geopolitics also comes in waves,” pointing to a contemporary “deep geopolitical recession” marked by low trust and paralyzed international institutions. Jeremić delineated that in times of geopolitical recessions three potential responses exist when institutions seem unfit for purpose: reforming existing organizations to align them with today's realities; building new institutions—regional or global—that can meet contemporary needs; and acting unilaterally to safeguard national interests when multilateral efforts fail. The moderator emphasized that he believes all three paths are being currently undertaken by states worldwide. 

Perspectives from the Panelists

Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud reflected on Multilateralism’s shortcomings: citing post-WWII hopes, he noted that the UN was envisioned to prevent conflicts, yet persistent issues prevail and the global governance body has been ineffective in resolving long-standing issues (e.g., Palestine, Kashmir). Nonetheless, he acknowledged that multilateral cooperation has driven significant strides in science, technology, and medicine, even though its political mechanisms remain under stress. Turning to the audience composed of university students, the Prince lamented: “In my ancient days, I cannot help but feel that my generation was the one that let you down,” urging the youth to take up the challenge.

Subsequently,  PSIA student Isabella Baker echoed concerns that the multilateral system has been under stress since 1945 and pointed to “indecisive leadership” in Western democracies that has led to stagnation and a perception of corruption. Highlighting defense spending shortfalls and industrial gaps causing concerns for European security and unity, she emphasized that reform is needed to restore trust and effectiveness.

Regarding the future of the international financial system and the dominance of the U.S. dollar, John Denton criticized the inertia of the system and the apparent desire to maintain the status quo. and added that there currently is no conceivable alternative.

María Fernanda Espinosa stressed that trust is the foundation of effective multilateralism, and the UN must rebuild public confidence through robust accountability and transparency. Clear ownership and execution are critical in determining who is responsible for decisions and making the institution truly responsive to the needs of all member states. Espinosa also underlined the significance of inclusive changes, advocating for increased representation and involvement in order to improve global government and make it more human-centered.

Finally, Zhang Weiwei argued that China is not waiting for Western institutions to reform and is instead proactively building its own alternative institutions, such as the Belt and Road Initiative. He juxtaposed China's efficiency with Western inertia: “China has done it; we produce more green power than traditional power, and green power electricity is lower in cost”. Furthermore, he challenged the prevalent dichotomous analytical perspective of democracy vs autocracy, arguing that the more important issue is "good governance versus bad governance."

Broader Themes and Future Outlook

The panelists agreed that reform, combined with the establishment of new institutions, is critical to addressing difficulties that no single country can manage alone. The discussion concluded with a plea to global unity and shared responsibility. Panelists stressed that, despite the hurdles and global recessions, only inclusive, reformed, and pragmatic multilateralism can allow the globe to confront today's critical issues.

This article was written by Julia JADZINSKA, master's student in Environmental Policy.

When discussing the future of international cooperation, it is essential to include the voices and opinions of the youth. Their perspectives bring new ideas, challenge current approaches, and push for meaningful change in global governance. On the final day of the Youth & Leaders Summit, Cristina Gallach, Secretary of the Board of GWL Voices and former UN Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information, engaged in a conversation with four PSIA students: Victor Aastrand, Perrine Estorges, Nicolas Scheer and Anais Servais. Using the responses provided by Science Po students on the Pol.Is platform, the speakers represented the audience’s visions of multilateral cooperation and presented Gallach with youth perspectives on the subject.

Gallach began by recalling her own time as a student. She highlighted that her university years were shaped by Spain’s political transformation from dictatorship to democracy. This period of change became a driving force in her career, fuelling her ambition to become a correspondent and inform Spaniards about global affairs. According to her, this work played a crucial role in Spain’s integration with other countries, as it was not yet a Member State of the European Union. She underscored how journalism, in times of transition, serves as a bridge between governments and the citizens, fostering political engagement and understanding.

During the panel, Cristina Gallach paid significant attention to the financial system and its connections to sustainable development. As she argued, we need to put in the effort for the current system to be able to ensure redistribution and address pressing global concerns such as climate change. Gallach also noted that the financial system must incorporate gender equality, an issue that remains a challenge for many international institutions. She highlighted that the upcoming UN forum in Seville would provide an opportunity for discussions on reforming financial structures to be more equitable.

“We all need to bring ideas to make the system suitable for sustainable development. The Seville Summit will also be an opportunity to look at intergenerational challenges and the interests of currently dominating countries, as well as those countries that feel excluded from financial institutions”, she declared. At the same time, Gallach acknowledged that developing countries often lack the necessary financial and technical means to implement certain solutions. Nevertheless,no country should ever be excluded from the obligation to address climate change. With the right support, financial aid and encouragement, all nations can contribute to building a more sustainable future. According to her, the role of climate finance is about ensuring that responsibilities are met by wealthier countries while enabling developing nations to participate effectively. 
As a former UN Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information, Cristina Gallach emphasised the importance of international cooperation. She stressed that organisations like the United Nations are especially vital in addressing global challenges s. However, she also underlined the necessity of regional efforts, as collaboration at different levels strengthens international governance. “We need to work in a multilateral way, and connect the local and global level, while adhering to international agreements at the same time” she stated. She also pointed out that engaging civil society and grassroots movements is crucial in making these agreements effective.

Gallach strongly emphasised the role of empathy and compassion in international affairs, particularly highlighting the efforts of the UN workers in Gaza. She praised their dedication, noting that their work is driven by care and a deep commitment to helping those in need. This same level of dedication, she argued, must also be reflected among United Nations officials, responsible for shaping policies and strategies within the organisation. 
However, she also acknowledged criticisms of the organisation, including claims that it primarily serves the interests of Western countries. She further pointed to a lack of gender balance, the issue of the UN being severely underfunded, and concerns about insufficient transparency in its decision-making processes. In her view, the United Nations is facing a crisis and is in urgent need of reform. Structural changes are necessary to improve efficiency, and ensure that the UN remains relevant in tackling contemporary challenges. One potential step forward, she suggested, could be appointing a female Secretary-General, who could bring a new vision for transformation and adaptation of the UN’s structure to the challenges of the modern world. A shift in leadership could signal a broader change within the organisation, paving the way for increased diversity.

In her final statement, Gallach pointed out, “One of our key goals is to always achieve more and more to continue good legacies. We need to believe in our values and in the conversations that are meant to better the future”. She encouraged young people to stay engaged, reminding them that change requires consistent effort and dedication. 

This article was written by Julia JADZINSKA, master's student in Environmental Policy.

Over the course of three days, the 10th edition of the Youth & Leaders Summit featured a series of panels, meetings, and discussions, all of which were concluded in a closing address by PSIA Dean Arancha González. Reflecting on the key themes of the Summit, she emphasised the necessity of broadening perspectives. “We need to try to avoid tunnel vision. But this requires difficult conversation, and that is exactly what international cooperation is about - listening to each other, no matter how hard it is”, she reminded the audience.

González highlighted that the world is shaped by many pluralities and complexities. Rather than being an obstacle, this diversity should be embraced as a foundation for meaningful change. Even though the pursuit of international cooperation is a continuous process, one that can never be fully perfected, she stressed that it remains essential. In her remarks, the PSIA Dean also underscored the crucial role of existing institutions, noting that they serve both as safeguards and as enablers of collective action. However, she also acknowledged that these institutions must evolve to remain relevant. Reforms are necessary to enhance transparency and accountability, and ensure fair representation.

For González, the heart of international cooperation lies not in bureaucratic regulations but in the people who drive these efforts forward. She argued that humanising multilateral engagement should be a priority. By shifting the focus away from purely institutional concerns and instead emphasising the human impact of global policies, the international community can create more effective and sustainable solutions.

These same values were recalled in a poem written by Oriel Wagner, a Master’s student from the Human Rights and Humanitarian Action Program at PSIA, which concluded the Summit on a note of hope.