{"id":7627,"date":"2019-12-18T10:45:19","date_gmt":"2019-12-18T08:45:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/finance-et-democratie-sont-elles-irreconciliables\/"},"modified":"2019-12-18T17:54:58","modified_gmt":"2019-12-18T15:54:58","slug":"are-finance-and-democracy-irreconcilable","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/are-finance-and-democracy-irreconcilable\/?lang=en","title":{"rendered":"Are Finance and Democracy Irreconcilable?"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"attachment_7500\" style=\"width: 307px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7500\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-7500 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-297x300.jpg\" alt=\"Graphic via Seth Tobocman from Understanding by The Crash Howl Arts Collective. CC BY 2.0\" width=\"297\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-297x300.jpg 297w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-768x775.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-145x146.jpg 145w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-50x50.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-74x75.jpg 74w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-85x85.jpg 85w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c-80x80.jpg 80w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/7046460605_36ff631177_c.jpg 793w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 297px) 100vw, 297px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7500\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Graphic via Seth Tobocman from Understanding by The Crash Howl Arts Collective. CC BY 2.0<\/p><\/div>\n<h2>A historical overview<\/h2>\n<p><i>Finance is now considered to be the main driver of growing inequality. At the same time, governments are being pilloried for their inability to fight its excesses. This has had disastrous political consequences: challenges to democracy and rising extremism. <a href=\"http:\/\/chsp.sciences-po.fr\/chercheur-permanent\/delalande\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Nicolas Delalande<\/a>&#8216;s look to the past shows that tensions between States, people, and finance have a long history. <\/i><\/p>\n<p>Over a decade ago, the 2007-2008 crisis shook the global economic system. Beyond its effects on people&#8217;s living standards and wellbeing, its political consequences are a new focus. The disrepute of traditional parties, the rise of far-right populist movements, and social revolts all point to the cracking legitimacy of democratic regimes.<\/p>\n<h4>A deep rift between democracy and finance<\/h4>\n<p>One of the most cited structural reasons for democratic distrust is the inability of governments to meet their populations\u2019 expectations with regard to purchasing power, employment, and inequality reduction. According to the German sociologist Wolfgang Streeck <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_7627_1('footnote_plugin_reference_7627_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_7627_1('footnote_plugin_reference_7627_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_7627_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(1)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_7627_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span style=\"color: #e6142d;\">Wolfgang Streeck &#8211; <a style=\"color: #e6142d;\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gallimard.fr\/Catalogue\/GALLIMARD\/NRF-Essais\/Du-temps-achete\">Du temps achet\u00e9 : La crise sans cesse ajourn\u00e9e du capitalisme d\u00e9mocratique<\/a> , Gallimard, 2014<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_7627_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_7627_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, this powerlessness stems from a growing and irreparable rift between democracy and financial capitalism, with voters and markets placing two contradictory types of demands on governments, which have fallen into virtually total dependence on the latter, thus fueling the former\u2019s anger. How to believe in the virtues of democracy if international investors can, by buying and selling securities, undo choices legitimately made through the ballot box, as seems to have recently been the case in Greece and other Eurozone countries?<\/p>\n<h4>First critiques under the <i>Ancien R\u00e9gime<\/i><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_7508\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7508\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7508\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2-300x188.png\" alt=\"Le Doyen des fermiers g\u00e9n\u00e9raux port\u00e9 par quatre commis aux barri\u00e8res conduit par les troupes de son corps faisant route vers le n\u00e9ant. Domaine Public\" width=\"300\" height=\"188\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2-300x188.png 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2-768x481.png 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2-233x146.png 233w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2-50x31.png 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2-120x75.png 120w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/Le_doyen_des_fermiers_g\u00e9n\u00e9raux-CROP2.png 945w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7508\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Le Doyen des fermiers g\u00e9n\u00e9raux port\u00e9 par quatre commis aux barri\u00e8res conduit par les troupes de son corps faisant route vers le n\u00e9ant. Domaine Public<\/p><\/div>\n<p>So-called &#8220;financiers&#8221; under the <i>Ancien R\u00e9gime<\/i> never had good press. 17th and 18th-century monarchies depended on them to borrow funds and collect taxes. Kings could certainly repudiate their debts and dismiss the financiers, but they had to negotiate with them to tap into precious revenue without which no war could be sustained. On the eve of the French Revolution, \u201ccollector generals\u201d, among the richest men in the kingdom, elicited such popular ire that the smuggler Louis Mandrin, openly at war with Customs agents in the 1750s, became a hero of the people, who were revolted by the injustice of the levies.<\/p>\n<h4>An oligarchy of rentiers<\/h4>\n<p>In the United Kingdom, despite the &#8220;financial revolution&#8221; at the end of the 17th century, leading to the creation of the Bank of England (1694) and the rise of the City, the financial community also came under fire. In the 1760s and 1770s, a radical critique cast the landed and moneyed elites\u2019 oligarchic privileges as detrimental to the people and workers. In a selective suffrage system in the hands of two major parties \u2013 the Whigs and the Tories \u2013 Parliament was failing in its primary mission to <i>represent<\/i> the interests of the English nation. Radicals calling for the democratization of the British political system saw the public debt, which was colossal at the beginning of the 19th century (over 200% of British annual income after the Napoleonic Wars) as a mechanism of extortion whereby rentiers (government bonds were the most common financial securities at the time) enriched themselves on the backs of taxpayers, who were heavily taxed through consumption taxes.<\/p>\n<h4>Finance versus the Nation-State?<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_7512\" style=\"width: 265px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7512\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-7512 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/James_de_Rothschild-255x300.jpg\" alt=\"James de Rothschild (1792-1868). [Public domain]\" width=\"255\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/James_de_Rothschild-255x300.jpg 255w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/James_de_Rothschild-124x146.jpg 124w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/James_de_Rothschild-42x50.jpg 42w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/James_de_Rothschild-64x75.jpg 64w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/James_de_Rothschild.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 255px) 100vw, 255px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7512\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">James de Rothschild (1792-1868). Public domain<\/p><\/div>The gradual democratization of institutions during the 19th century did not end the suspicion towards the world of finance and banking. On the contrary, \u201cpower bankers\u201d, chief among whom were the Rothschild and Baring families, became the privileged interlocutors of any State seeking to earn the trust of markets and maintain its reputation as a reliable borrower. They garnered fat profits, as well as strong enmities, which were increasingly used in the political field by those who wanted to criticize the oligarchic excesses of democratic societies, both on the right and on the left.<\/p>\n<p>In France, at the end of the 19th century, denunciation of financial capitalism was deeply rooted in socialist circles and could sometimes veer into anti-Semitism, as seen in many pamphlets published at the time against \u201cfinancial feudalism\u201d. Examples include <i>The Jews, kings of the epoch. The history of financial feudalism <\/i>by Alphonse Toussenel (1845) and <i>The Kings of the Republic <\/i>by Auguste Chirac (1883). Meanwhile, rightwing adversaries of the Republic lambasted the racketeering of a regime supposedly in the hands of Freemasons, Jews, and \u201cinternational finance\u201d.<\/p>\n<h4>All rentiers!<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_7510\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7510\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-7510 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-300x244.jpg\" alt=\"Action provisoire de la Compagnie Universelle du canal interoc\u00e9anique de Panam\u00e0. 1888. Ferdinand de Lesseps [Public domain]\" width=\"300\" height=\"244\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-300x244.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-768x626.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-1024x834.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-179x146.jpg 179w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-50x41.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama-92x75.jpg 92w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/ActionPanama.jpg 1113w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7510\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Action provisoire de la Compagnie Universelle du canal interoc\u00e9anique de Panam\u00e0. 1888. Ferdinand de Lesseps [Public domain]<\/p><\/div>To overcome this seemingly insurmountable opposition between the world of finance and democratic legitimacy, some called for &#8220;democratizing&#8221; finance, to bring it closer to the people and convince them of its benefits. Paradoxically, in France, it was an illiberal regime \u2013 the Second Empire \u2013 that first tried to broaden the circle of public debt holders. As the number of conflicts and their high costs grew in the 1850s and 1860s (the Crimean, Italian and Austrian Wars), the authorities decided to sell annuity securities directly to the public, without going through the usual intermediaries. Their goal was to earn the trust of savers through genuine &#8220;financial plebiscites&#8221;, inspired by the plebiscite theory that forms the basis of the Bonapartist conception of popular sovereignty.<\/p>\n<p>The Republic adopted this model: the consent of the people had to be expressed both in the ballot box and in their wallets. At the beginning of the 20th century, proponents of this model were convinced that the success of the Republic rested on the democratization of both (male) suffrage and the stock exchange. Several million savers held shares of the public debt, even though it was very unevenly distributed. Ideologically, this diffusion of rents supposedly confirmed the existence of true &#8220;financial democracy&#8221;. Money invested abroad, in government securities, and in mining and railway bonds, also served the purposes of colonial imperialism, which had spread to all four corners of the globe.<\/p>\n<h4>A democracy of investors<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_7498\" style=\"width: 214px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7498\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7498\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/versez-son-or-souscrire-des-obligations-de-la-defense-nationale-cest-un-devoir-1-204x300.jpg\" alt=\"L'Emprunt de la Victoire, 1920. Source : Library of CongressCr\u00e9dits : Public Domain\" width=\"204\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/versez-son-or-souscrire-des-obligations-de-la-defense-nationale-cest-un-devoir-1-204x300.jpg 204w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/versez-son-or-souscrire-des-obligations-de-la-defense-nationale-cest-un-devoir-1.jpg 695w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/versez-son-or-souscrire-des-obligations-de-la-defense-nationale-cest-un-devoir-1-99x146.jpg 99w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/versez-son-or-souscrire-des-obligations-de-la-defense-nationale-cest-un-devoir-1-34x50.jpg 34w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/versez-son-or-souscrire-des-obligations-de-la-defense-nationale-cest-un-devoir-1-51x75.jpg 51w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 204px) 100vw, 204px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7498\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">L&#8217;Emprunt de la Victoire, 1920. Source : Library of Congress. Cr\u00e9dits : Public Domain<\/p><\/div>\n<p>With the two World Wars, this phenomenon of expanding the circle of public debt holders became the norm in many countries. Citizens were expected not only to support the war politically and militarily, but also economically and financially. In the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Russia, the purchase of government bonds was presented as a new patriotic duty \u2013 a sign of unfailing loyalty and confidence in the future. When voluntary commitment was no longer enough, coercion and social pressure were deployed. As historian Julia Ott <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_7627_1('footnote_plugin_reference_7627_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_7627_1('footnote_plugin_reference_7627_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_7627_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(2)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_7627_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span style=\"color: #e6142d;\">Julia Ott , <a style=\"color: #e6142d;\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hup.harvard.edu\/catalog.php?isbn=9780674417021\">When Wall Street Met Main Street: The Quest for an Investors\u2019 Democracy<\/a> , Harvard University Press, 2011<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_7627_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_7627_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> has shown, the American federal state\u2019s legitimation of the link between public debt and citizenship was then used in the 1920s by Wall Street to justify the social role of private finance as conducive to the fulfillment of individual freedoms and dreams of prosperity. Then the 1929 crisis triggered a series of bankruptcies, revealing the illusory nature of this promise, the weight of which was not equally shouldered.<\/p>\n<h4>The need for regulation<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_7515\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7515\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-7515 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/615px-American_union_bank-300x234.gif\" alt=\"American Union Bank during a bank run early in the Great Depression.\" width=\"300\" height=\"234\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/615px-American_union_bank-300x234.gif 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/615px-American_union_bank-187x146.gif 187w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/615px-American_union_bank-50x39.gif 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/615px-American_union_bank-96x75.gif 96w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2004\/11\/615px-American_union_bank-615x480.gif 615w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7515\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crowd at New York&#8217;s American Union Bank during a bank run early in the Great Depression. Public Domain<\/p><\/div>\n<p>From the 1930s to the 1940s, government intervention to regulate financial activities became a political and economic imperative. This fragile and temporary balance, directly linked to the effects of the wars and the Great Depression, gave rise to the regulated or &#8220;embedded&#8221; capitalism of the 1950s and 1960s that accompanied the expansion of democracy in the wake of the Cold War and the decline of empires. But over time, this episode increasingly appeared to be an exception in the long history of capitalism. The financialization of the economy and societies that began in the 1970s, as sociologists and economists have thoroughly analyzed, reactivated the growing rift between finance and democracy. This is the scientific and political challenge we face in a world that has become more vulnerable as resources are depleted and inequality grows.<\/p>\n<pre><a href=\"http:\/\/chsp.sciences-po.fr\/chercheur-permanent\/delalande?_ga=2.12151284.1187533279.1571684517-745929536.1558974043\">Nicolas Delalande<\/a>, <i>Associate<\/i> Professor and researcher at Sciences Po\u2019s Center for History, focuses on the history of the State, inequalities, and solidarity in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries. He has published <i>La Lutte et l\u2019Entraide. L\u2019\u00e2ge des solidarit\u00e9s ouvri\u00e8res [Struggles and assistance. The age of wokrer solidarity] <\/i>(Seuil, 2019),\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.seuil.com\/ouvrage\/les-batailles-de-l-impot-nicolas-delalande\/9782021174786\"><i>Les Batailles de l'imp\u00f4t. Consentement et r\u00e9sistances de 1789 \u00e0 nos jours<\/i><\/a> [Tax battles. Consent and resistance from 1789 to today] (Seuil, 2011 and new edition, 2014) and edited, with Nicolas Barreyre, <i>A World of Public Debts. A Political History<\/i> (Palgrave MacMillan, to be published in 2020).<\/pre>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_7627_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_7627_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_7627_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_7627_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_7627_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_7627_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_7627_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><span style=\"color: #e6142d;\">Wolfgang Streeck &#8211; <a style=\"color: #e6142d;\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gallimard.fr\/Catalogue\/GALLIMARD\/NRF-Essais\/Du-temps-achete\">Du temps achet\u00e9 : La crise sans cesse ajourn\u00e9e du capitalisme d\u00e9mocratique<\/a> , Gallimard, 2014<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_7627_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_7627_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_7627_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><span style=\"color: #e6142d;\">Julia Ott , <a style=\"color: #e6142d;\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hup.harvard.edu\/catalog.php?isbn=9780674417021\">When Wall Street Met Main Street: The Quest for an Investors\u2019 Democracy<\/a> , Harvard University Press, 2011<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_7627_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_7627_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_7627_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_7627_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_7627_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_7627_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_7627_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_7627_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_7627_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_7627_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_7627_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_7627_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_7627_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_7627_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A historical overview Finance is now considered to be the main driver of growing inequality. 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