{"id":13867,"date":"2023-02-20T17:30:47","date_gmt":"2023-02-20T15:30:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/?p=13867"},"modified":"2023-03-23T16:43:02","modified_gmt":"2023-03-23T14:43:02","slug":"conflits-armes-limpact-croissant-du-droit-international","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/conflits-armes-limpact-croissant-du-droit-international\/","title":{"rendered":"Conflits arm\u00e9s : l\u2019impact croissant du droit international"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><em>par <a href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ceri\/fr\/cerispire-user\/34905\/34947\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Adam Baczko<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p>Contrairement \u00e0 la perception commune des guerres comme des espaces de non-droit, les normes internationales influent sur les pratiques des bellig\u00e9rants. Si les poursuites men\u00e9es par les juridictions internationales, \u00e0 commencer par la Cour p\u00e9nale internationale, ont des r\u00e9sultats souvent mitig\u00e9s, leurs actions, de concert avec celle des Nations Unies, des ONG et des m\u00e9dias, ont des r\u00e9percussions sur la conduite des guerres contemporaines<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(1)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u00c9lisabeth Claverie, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-quaderni-2012-2-page-67.htm\">Mettre en cause la l\u00e9gitimit\u00e9 de la violence d\u2019\u00c9tat. La justice p\u00e9nale internationale comme institution, comme dispositif et comme sc\u00e8ne<\/a>\u201d [Questioning the legitimacy of state violence. International criminal justice as an institution, a tool, and a stage], <i>Quaderni<\/i> 78, 2012, p. 67-83.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>S\u2019investir dans le droit pour se prot\u00e9ger<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_13974\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-13974\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-13974\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/49488096306_5da0705f73_w.jpg\" alt=\"General Debate, 3 d\u00e9cembre 2019 | \u00a9 Coalition for the International Criminal Court\" width=\"350\" height=\"234\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/49488096306_5da0705f73_w.jpg 400w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/49488096306_5da0705f73_w-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/49488096306_5da0705f73_w-219x146.jpg 219w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/49488096306_5da0705f73_w-50x33.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/49488096306_5da0705f73_w-112x75.jpg 112w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-13974\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">General Debate, 3 d\u00e9cembre 2019 | \u00a9 Coalition for the International Criminal Court<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Ce constat est d\u2019autant plus notable que les \u00c9tats garants de la stabilit\u00e9 du syst\u00e8me international, comme membres permanents du Conseil de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 des Nations unies, sont les premiers \u00e0 s\u2019affranchir du droit international humanitaire lorsqu\u2019ils sont parties prenantes dans un conflit. Il en va ainsi des \u00c9tats-Unis en Afghanistan et en Irak, ou de la Russie en Tch\u00e9tch\u00e9nie, en Syrie ou en Ukraine<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(2)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Philip Alston, <a href=\"https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/russian-federation\/report-special-rapporteur-extrajudicial-summary-or-arbitrary-executions\"><i>Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions. Study on Targeted Killings<\/i><\/a>, Geneva, United Nations Human Rights Council, 2010; Amrit Singh, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.justiceinitiative.org\/publications\/globalizing-torture-cia-secret-detention-and-extraordinary-rendition\"><i>Globalizing Torture. CIA Secret Detention and Extraordinary Rendition<\/i><\/a>, New York, Open Society, 2013; Anne Le Hu\u00e9rou, Aude Merlin, Amandine Regamey and Elisabeth Sieca Kozlowski (ed.), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.routledge.com\/Chechnya-at-War-and-Beyond\/Huerou-Merlin-Regamey-Sieca-Kozlowski\/p\/book\/9781138576865\"><i>Chechnya at War and Beyond<\/i><\/a>, London, Routledge, 2014.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Pour autant, la pr\u00e9gnance des normes internationales est telle que l\u2019arm\u00e9e am\u00e9ricaine a mis en place des dispositifs pour contourner ces contraintes juridiques, via notamment le recrutement de juristes de l\u2019arm\u00e9e charg\u00e9s d\u2019\u00e9valuer le risque de faire des victimes civiles dans l\u2019optique d\u2019\u00e9valuer le risque de victimes civiles caus\u00e9es par des frappes de drones<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(3)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Craig Jones, <a href=\"https:\/\/global.oup.com\/academic\/product\/the-war-lawyers-9780198842927?q=The%20War%20Lawyers:%20The%20United%20States,%20Israel,%20and%20Juridical%20Warfare&amp;cc=fr&amp;lang=en\"><i>The War Lawyers: The United States, Israel, and Juridical Warfare<\/i><\/a>, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2020.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. De son c\u00f4t\u00e9, l\u2019arm\u00e9e isra\u00e9lienne a cr\u00e9\u00e9 un d\u00e9partement juridique pour limiter les cons\u00e9quences des violations du droit international par ses soldats. Le directeur de Forensic Architecture, Eyal Weizman, rapporte ainsi que ces juristes de Tsahal, qui se nomment eux-m\u00eames \u00ab anarchistes contre le droit \u00bb<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(4)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">L\u2019expression \u00ab\u00a0<i>les anarchistes contre le droit\u00a0<\/i>\u00bb d\u00e9tourne le nom d\u2019un des groupes de militants qui s\u2019opposaient \u00e0 la construction du mur de s\u00e9paration en Isra\u00ebl, \u00ab les anarchistes contre le mur \u00bb.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, s\u2019inspirent des Critical Legal Studies d\u00e9velopp\u00e9es dans le contexte du mouvement des droits civiques des ann\u00e9es 1970 aux \u00c9tats-Unis, afin de transformer \u00e0 terme la jurisprudence internationale<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(5)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Eyal Weizman, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.versobooks.com\/books\/2464-the-least-of-all-possible-evils\"><i>The Least of All Possible Evils: Humanitarian Violence from Arendt to Gaza<\/i><\/a>, New York, Verso Books, 2011. In 2005, Lisa Hajjar had already shown that \u201c<i>the [Israeli] system of military courts has also provided a framework for the deployment of legal strategies and the development of legal discourses to address conflict.<\/i>\u201d Lisa Hajjar, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26294386\"><i>Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza<\/i><\/a>, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2005, p.\u202f2\u20113.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>Des mouvements arm\u00e9s conscients de la force du droit<\/h4>\n<p>Les mouvements arm\u00e9s non \u00e9tatiques s\u2019adaptent \u00e9galement aux normes internationales. Ainsi, dans leur lutte contre l\u2019intervention occidentale en Afghanistan entre 2001 et 2021, les Taliban, un mouvement pourtant mis au ban de la communaut\u00e9 internationale, ont pris en compte le droit international et dialogu\u00e9 avec le Comit\u00e9 international de la Croix-Rouge et le d\u00e9partement des droits de l\u2019Homme des Nations Unies. Sans reconnaitre formellement le droit humanitaire international ou la D\u00e9claration universelle des droits de l\u2019Homme, le mouvement Taliban reprenait r\u00e9guli\u00e8rement leur vocabulaire et leurs principes en les adossant au droit islamique. Il collaborait r\u00e9guli\u00e8rement avec les Nations Unies dans le d\u00e9compte des victimes civiles et dans les enqu\u00eates visant \u00e0 attribuer la responsabilit\u00e9 de ces violences<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(6)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Adam Baczko, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnrseditions.fr\/catalogue\/relations-internationales\/la-guerre-par-le-droit\/\"><i>La guerre par le droit. Les tribunaux Taliban en Afghanistan<\/i><\/a>, CNRS Editions, 2021, p. 220-221.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Dans le cas de la Sierra Leone et du Lib\u00e9ria des ann\u00e9es 1990<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(7)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Mariane Ferme and Daniel\u00a0Hoffman, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/load_pdf.php?download=1&amp;ID_ARTICLE=POLAF_088_0027\">Combattants irr\u00e9guliers et discours international des droits de l&rsquo;homme dans les guerres civiles africaines. Le cas des \u201cchasseurs\u00a0\u00bb sierra-l\u00e9onais<\/a>\u201d, <i>Politique africaine<\/i> 88 (4), 2002, p. 27-48; Daniel Hoffman, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3518609\">The Civilian Target in Sierra Leone and Liberia: Political Power, Military Strategy, and Humanitarian Intervention<\/a>\u201d, <i>African Affairs<\/i> 103 (411), 2004, p. 211\u2011226.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, les politistes, Mariane Ferme et Daniel Hoffman ont montr\u00e9 cette m\u00eame adaptation des pratiques combattantes aux interventions internationales. De m\u00eame, le Parti de l\u2019union d\u00e9mocratique kurde (PYD) d\u00e9ploie des efforts consid\u00e9rables pour se faire reconnaitre comme l\u2019autorit\u00e9 l\u00e9gale de facto dans le nord-est de la Syrie et affirme son respect des droits des femmes et des minorit\u00e9s dans tous ses documents officiels. \u00c0 la suite d\u2019un rapport d\u2019Human Rights Watch sur son administration qui d\u00e9non\u00e7ait certains abus, le PYD a r\u00e9pondu par une lettre officielle remerciant l\u2019ONG pour son enqu\u00eate, r\u00e9futant plusieurs critiques et justifiant certains des manquements par le contexte politique<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(8)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u00ab<a href=\"https:\/\/bit.ly\/2r0klun\">\u00a0The Democratic Self-Rule Administration\u2019s Response to the Report of Human Rights Watch Organization<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb,. Voir \u00e9galement les \u00e9changes pr\u00e9alables \u00e0 la publication du rapport qui montrent la m\u00eame volont\u00e9 de se pr\u00e9senter comme respectueux des droits de la personne. Human Rights Watch, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/report\/2014\/06\/19\/under-kurdish-rule\/abuses-pyd-run-enclaves-syria\"><i>Under Kurdish Rule: Abuses in PYD-run Enclaves of Syria<\/i><\/a>, New York, 2014, p. 95\u2011107.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>Les strat\u00e9gies de transgressions des normes internationales<\/h4>\n<p>Les strat\u00e9gies de transgression du droit humanitaire international r\u00e9v\u00e8lent en creux l\u2019importance de celui-ci. Ainsi, lors de la guerre civile syrienne, l\u2019attention internationale s\u2019est focalis\u00e9e sur les dizaines d\u2019attaques chimiques du r\u00e9gime, mais leur caract\u00e8re meurtrier s\u2019est av\u00e9r\u00e9 limit\u00e9 en comparaison des bombardements conventionnels et du largage par h\u00e9licopt\u00e8re de barils remplis d\u2019explosifs sur des objectifs civils<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(9)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Adam Baczko, Gilles Dorronsoro et Arthur Quesnay, <i>Syrie\u2026\u00a0op. cit\u00a0;<\/i>\u00a0 Le\u00efla Vignal, <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.fr\/books\/about\/War_torn.html?id=umAzzwEACAAJ&amp;redir_esc=y\"><i>War-Torn: The Unmaking of Syria, 2011-2021<\/i><\/a>, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. L\u2019emploi d\u2019armes chimiques par le r\u00e9gime ne correspondait pas tant \u00e0 des objectifs tactiques qu\u2019\u00e0 d\u00e9montrer l\u2019impuissance des pays occidentaux et faire entendre aux Syriens qu\u2019ils n\u2019avaient d\u2019autre alternative que de se soumettre ou s\u2019exiler.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_13976\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-13976\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-13976\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/Screenshot-2023-02-20-at-11-59-28-FDLR.JPG-Image-JPEG-500-\u00d7-375-pixels.png\" alt=\"Le chef des Ma\u00ef-Ma\u00ef Sheka se rend 26 juillet 2017 - \u00e0 la MONUSCO. Photo MONUSCO.\" width=\"350\" height=\"262\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/Screenshot-2023-02-20-at-11-59-28-FDLR.JPG-Image-JPEG-500-\u00d7-375-pixels.png 625w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/Screenshot-2023-02-20-at-11-59-28-FDLR.JPG-Image-JPEG-500-\u00d7-375-pixels-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/Screenshot-2023-02-20-at-11-59-28-FDLR.JPG-Image-JPEG-500-\u00d7-375-pixels-195x146.png 195w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/Screenshot-2023-02-20-at-11-59-28-FDLR.JPG-Image-JPEG-500-\u00d7-375-pixels-50x37.png 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/Screenshot-2023-02-20-at-11-59-28-FDLR.JPG-Image-JPEG-500-\u00d7-375-pixels-100x75.png 100w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-13976\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Le chef des Ma\u00ef-Ma\u00ef Sheka se rend 26 juillet 2017 &#8211; \u00e0 la MONUSCO. Photo MONUSCO.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Dans ce cas, l\u2019emploi des armes chimiques comme message s\u2019appuie bien sur leur interdiction. De mani\u00e8re similaire, en ao\u00fbt 2010, les miliciens des ma\u00ef-mai Sheka (groupe arm\u00e9 congolais) commettent 387 viols pendant trois jours dans le village de Luvungi, \u00e0 l\u2019est de la R\u00e9publique d\u00e9mocratique du Congo. Comme l\u2019explique S\u00e9verine Autesserre, professeure \u00e0 l\u2019Universit\u00e9 de Columbia : \u00ab Sheka a ordonn\u00e9 \u00e0 ses soldats de violer syst\u00e9matiquement les femmes, au lieu de se contenter de piller et de frapper les gens comme d\u2019habitude, car il voulait attirer l\u2019attention sur son groupe arm\u00e9 et \u00eatre invit\u00e9 \u00e0 la table des n\u00e9gociations. Il savait que la violence sexuelle \u00e9tait le meilleur moyen d\u2019atteindre cet objectif, car cela attirerait l\u2019attention de la communaut\u00e9 internationale, et divers \u00c9tats et organisations de d\u00e9fense des droits de la personne feraient pression sur le gouvernement congolais pour qu\u2019il n\u00e9gocie avec lui \u2014 et c\u2019est exactement ce qui s\u2019est pass\u00e9 \u00bb<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(10)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">S\u00e9verine Autesserre, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/41494485\">Dangerous Tales: Dominant Narratives on the Congo and their Unintended Consequences<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb, <i>African Affairs<\/i>, vol. 111, no 443, 2012, p.\u202f217.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. M\u00eame l\u2019\u00c9tat islamique, un des rares mouvements qui rejette en bloc l\u2019ordre international, confirme la pr\u00e9gnance de ces normes \u00e0 travers les infractions que ses militants publicisent pour marquer leur rupture vis-\u00e0-vis de ces derni\u00e8res (non-reconnaissance des fronti\u00e8res internationales, \u00e9gorgement de prisonniers, mise en esclavage des femmes).<\/p>\n<h4>La difficile distinction entre combattants et civils<\/h4>\n<p>Cette relation des bellig\u00e9rants aux normes internationales se retrouve en particulier dans les luttes autour de la distinction entre civils et combattants, qui constitue un principe cardinal des juridictions p\u00e9nales internationales. Ce distinguo est essentiel dans la qualification juridique des crimes et, plus largement, dans la perception publique des bellig\u00e9rants par les audiences locales et internationales. Pour autant, les proc\u00e9dures p\u00e9nales internationales, \u00e0 commencer par celles concernant l\u2019ex-Yougoslavie et la R\u00e9publique d\u00e9mocratique du Congo, ont r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9 la difficult\u00e9 pour les juridictions internationales de d\u00e9terminer le caract\u00e8re civil ou combattant de certaines personnes<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(11)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">\u00c9lisabeth Claverie, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/terrain\/11243\">Questions de qualifications: Un mufti bosnien devant le TPIY<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb, <i>Terrain<\/i>\u00a051, 2008, p. 78-93\u00a0; \u00c9lisabeth Claverie, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/terrain\/15850\">Vivre dans le \u00ab\u202fcombattantisme\u202f\u00bb: Parcours d\u2019un chef de milice en Ituri<\/a> (R\u00e9publique d\u00e9mocratique du Congo)\u00a0\u00bb, <i>Terrain<\/i>\u00a065, 2015, p. 159-181\u00a0; Jak\u0161i\u0107 Milena, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/terrain\/18517\">Trouver l\u2019enfant soldat<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb, <i>Terrain<\/i>, 2019.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_13978\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-13978\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-13978\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/people-military-soldier-army-community-communication-870283-pxhere.com_.jpg\" alt=\"Taliban, Creative Commons CC0.\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/people-military-soldier-army-community-communication-870283-pxhere.com_.jpg 720w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/people-military-soldier-army-community-communication-870283-pxhere.com_-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/people-military-soldier-army-community-communication-870283-pxhere.com_-195x146.jpg 195w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/people-military-soldier-army-community-communication-870283-pxhere.com_-50x38.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/02\/people-military-soldier-army-community-communication-870283-pxhere.com_-100x75.jpg 100w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-13978\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Taliban. Creative Commons CC0.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>La qualification du statut des personnes fait \u00e9galement l\u2019objet de luttes entre les bellig\u00e9rants en raison des effets contraignants des normes internationales sur la protection des civils ou au traitement des combattants captur\u00e9s. Ainsi les membres du bureau des droits de l\u2019Homme des Nations Unies en Afghanistan \u00e9taient-ils en discussion constante avec les Taliban et les militaires am\u00e9ricains pour d\u00e9terminer le statut combattant des cibles des violences, et notamment les policiers<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_13867_1('footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(12)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Adam Baczko, <i>La guerre par le droit\u2026 op. cit<\/i>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_13867_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<h4>Le r\u00f4le croissant des r\u00e9seaux sociaux<\/h4>\n<p>Ainsi le droit international s\u2019est-il impos\u00e9 comme un enjeu incontournable pour tous les bellig\u00e9rants. Des forces arm\u00e9es des grandes puissances aux mouvements insurrectionnels, tous sont conscients que la guerre est aussi informationnelle et que l\u2019issue du conflit arm\u00e9 se joue devant et selon une audience et des instances internationales, dont les limitations bien r\u00e9elles ne doivent pas en dissimuler les effets. La guerre actuelle en Ukraine, o\u00f9 les crimes perp\u00e9tr\u00e9s par les combattants russes et ukrainiens, dont les d\u00e9nonciations deviennent imm\u00e9diatement virales via sur les r\u00e9seaux sociaux, montre bien que si les institutions internationales sont impuissantes \u00e0 emp\u00eacher les atrocit\u00e9s, elles ont r\u00e9ussi \u00e0 en faire un enjeu d\u00e9terminant dans la conduite de la guerre et dans sa r\u00e9solution future.<\/p>\n<pre><a href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ceri\/fr\/cerispire-user\/34905\/34947\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Adam Baczko<\/a> est charg\u00e9 de recherche CNRS au Centre de recherches internationales. Il m\u00e8ne des recherches sur la formation d\u2019institutions juridiques par les mouvements arm\u00e9s et les op\u00e9rateurs internationaux dans des contextes de conflits arm\u00e9s, avec une attention particuli\u00e8re port\u00e9e \u00e0 l\u2019Afghanistan et la Syrie. Voir toutes ses publications.<\/pre>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_13867_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_13867_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_13867_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_13867_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u00c9lisabeth Claverie, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-quaderni-2012-2-page-67.htm\">Mettre en cause la l\u00e9gitimit\u00e9 de la violence d\u2019\u00c9tat. La justice p\u00e9nale internationale comme institution, comme dispositif et comme sc\u00e8ne<\/a>\u201d [Questioning the legitimacy of state violence. International criminal justice as an institution, a tool, and a stage], <i>Quaderni<\/i> 78, 2012, p. 67-83.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Philip Alston, <a href=\"https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/russian-federation\/report-special-rapporteur-extrajudicial-summary-or-arbitrary-executions\"><i>Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions. Study on Targeted Killings<\/i><\/a>, Geneva, United Nations Human Rights Council, 2010; Amrit Singh, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.justiceinitiative.org\/publications\/globalizing-torture-cia-secret-detention-and-extraordinary-rendition\"><i>Globalizing Torture. CIA Secret Detention and Extraordinary Rendition<\/i><\/a>, New York, Open Society, 2013; Anne Le Hu\u00e9rou, Aude Merlin, Amandine Regamey and Elisabeth Sieca Kozlowski (ed.), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.routledge.com\/Chechnya-at-War-and-Beyond\/Huerou-Merlin-Regamey-Sieca-Kozlowski\/p\/book\/9781138576865\"><i>Chechnya at War and Beyond<\/i><\/a>, London, Routledge, 2014.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Craig Jones, <a href=\"https:\/\/global.oup.com\/academic\/product\/the-war-lawyers-9780198842927?q=The%20War%20Lawyers:%20The%20United%20States,%20Israel,%20and%20Juridical%20Warfare&amp;cc=fr&amp;lang=en\"><i>The War Lawyers: The United States, Israel, and Juridical Warfare<\/i><\/a>, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2020.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">L\u2019expression \u00ab\u00a0<i>les anarchistes contre le droit\u00a0<\/i>\u00bb d\u00e9tourne le nom d\u2019un des groupes de militants qui s\u2019opposaient \u00e0 la construction du mur de s\u00e9paration en Isra\u00ebl, \u00ab les anarchistes contre le mur \u00bb.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Eyal Weizman, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.versobooks.com\/books\/2464-the-least-of-all-possible-evils\"><i>The Least of All Possible Evils: Humanitarian Violence from Arendt to Gaza<\/i><\/a>, New York, Verso Books, 2011. In 2005, Lisa Hajjar had already shown that \u201c<i>the [Israeli] system of military courts has also provided a framework for the deployment of legal strategies and the development of legal discourses to address conflict.<\/i>\u201d Lisa Hajjar, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26294386\"><i>Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza<\/i><\/a>, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2005, p.\u202f2\u20113.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Adam Baczko, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnrseditions.fr\/catalogue\/relations-internationales\/la-guerre-par-le-droit\/\"><i>La guerre par le droit. Les tribunaux Taliban en Afghanistan<\/i><\/a>, CNRS Editions, 2021, p. 220-221.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Mariane Ferme and Daniel\u00a0Hoffman, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/load_pdf.php?download=1&amp;ID_ARTICLE=POLAF_088_0027\">Combattants irr\u00e9guliers et discours international des droits de l&rsquo;homme dans les guerres civiles africaines. Le cas des \u201cchasseurs\u00a0\u00bb sierra-l\u00e9onais<\/a>\u201d, <i>Politique africaine<\/i> 88 (4), 2002, p. 27-48; Daniel Hoffman, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3518609\">The Civilian Target in Sierra Leone and Liberia: Political Power, Military Strategy, and Humanitarian Intervention<\/a>\u201d, <i>African Affairs<\/i> 103 (411), 2004, p. 211\u2011226.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u00ab<a href=\"https:\/\/bit.ly\/2r0klun\">\u00a0The Democratic Self-Rule Administration\u2019s Response to the Report of Human Rights Watch Organization<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb,. Voir \u00e9galement les \u00e9changes pr\u00e9alables \u00e0 la publication du rapport qui montrent la m\u00eame volont\u00e9 de se pr\u00e9senter comme respectueux des droits de la personne. Human Rights Watch, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/report\/2014\/06\/19\/under-kurdish-rule\/abuses-pyd-run-enclaves-syria\"><i>Under Kurdish Rule: Abuses in PYD-run Enclaves of Syria<\/i><\/a>, New York, 2014, p. 95\u2011107.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Adam Baczko, Gilles Dorronsoro et Arthur Quesnay, <i>Syrie\u2026\u00a0op. cit\u00a0;<\/i>\u00a0 Le\u00efla Vignal, <a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.fr\/books\/about\/War_torn.html?id=umAzzwEACAAJ&amp;redir_esc=y\"><i>War-Torn: The Unmaking of Syria, 2011-2021<\/i><\/a>, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">S\u00e9verine Autesserre, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/41494485\">Dangerous Tales: Dominant Narratives on the Congo and their Unintended Consequences<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb, <i>African Affairs<\/i>, vol. 111, no 443, 2012, p.\u202f217.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">\u00c9lisabeth Claverie, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/terrain\/11243\">Questions de qualifications: Un mufti bosnien devant le TPIY<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb, <i>Terrain<\/i>\u00a051, 2008, p. 78-93\u00a0; \u00c9lisabeth Claverie, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/terrain\/15850\">Vivre dans le \u00ab\u202fcombattantisme\u202f\u00bb: Parcours d\u2019un chef de milice en Ituri<\/a> (R\u00e9publique d\u00e9mocratique du Congo)\u00a0\u00bb, <i>Terrain<\/i>\u00a065, 2015, p. 159-181\u00a0; Jak\u0161i\u0107 Milena, \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/terrain\/18517\">Trouver l\u2019enfant soldat<\/a>\u00a0\u00bb, <i>Terrain<\/i>, 2019.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_13867_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_13867_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Adam Baczko, <i>La guerre par le droit\u2026 op. cit<\/i>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_13867_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_13867_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_13867_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_13867_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_13867_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_13867_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_13867_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_13867_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_13867_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_13867_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_13867_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_13867_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_13867_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_13867_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>par Adam Baczko Contrairement \u00e0 la perception commune des guerres comme des espaces de non-droit, les normes internationales influent sur les pratiques des bellig\u00e9rants. Si<span class=\"excerpt-hellip\"> [\u2026]<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":13868,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[318,309],"tags":[68],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13867"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=13867"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13867\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":14144,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13867\/revisions\/14144"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/13868"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13867"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=13867"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=13867"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}