{"id":11168,"date":"2021-03-16T10:30:30","date_gmt":"2021-03-16T08:30:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/ecrire-lhistoire-de-nos-droits\/"},"modified":"2021-07-01T14:43:55","modified_gmt":"2021-07-01T12:43:55","slug":"writing-the-history-of-our-laws","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/writing-the-history-of-our-laws\/?lang=en","title":{"rendered":"Writing the History of Our Laws"},"content":{"rendered":"<h3>New Trends, New Methods<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><em><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">by Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Audren, Law School<br \/>\n<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10931\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10931\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-10931\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/640px-Whanganui_River-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/640px-Whanganui_River-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/640px-Whanganui_River-220x146.jpg 220w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/640px-Whanganui_River-50x33.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/640px-Whanganui_River-113x75.jpg 113w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/640px-Whanganui_River.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10931\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Whanganui River. Cr\u00e9dits image : James Shook. CC BY 2.5<\/p><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In 2017, the tribes living along the banks of the Whanganui river, the third-largest in New Zealand, finally obtained recognition of their spiritual connection with the river after a long fight. New Zealand\u2019s parliament recognised the river as a living being with a \u201clegal personality\u201d generating rights and obligations. At the same time, India was taking similar action, grating rights to two rivers (including the Ganges). Closer to home, the French National Assembly voted a law in 2015 to improve animal welfare. Pets, tamed animals and\/or in captivity, traditionally considered by the legal system as \u201cpersonal property\u201d, are now better protected, having been recognised as \u201csentient living beings\u201d<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(1)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">New article 515-14 (created by law no. 2015-177 of 16 February 2015 &#8211; art. 2): \u201cAnimals are sentient living beings. Subject to the specific laws that protect them, animals are governed by property laws.\u201d<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These very recent examples illustrate that legal creativity is a constant process. Often as a result of long fights, failures, efforts and disappointments, our societies establish protection for the beings that comprise them. In the early 20th century, legal professionals used the term \u201csocialisation of law\u201d to describe the movement of extending certain rights to certain categories of the population. At the time, this referred mostly to women, labourers, unions, children etc. who did not have the same rights as others. Current developments in environmental law, anti-discrimination law, digital law and compliance<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(2)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">i.e. The processes intended to ensure that an organisation and its members comply with the legal and ethical standards applicable to them.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> <\/span>reflect new challenges and requirements, and new claims.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10935\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.planningsfps.be\/livg-dans-le-monde-en-2019-entre-multiplication-des-attaques-et-manque-davancees-legislatives\/\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10935\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10935 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-300x180.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"180\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-300x180.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-1024x615.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-768x462.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-1536x923.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-243x146.jpg 243w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-50x30.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497-125x75.jpg 125w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Revendication-Droit-a-IVG-dans-le-monde-e1569311136497.jpg 1687w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-10935\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Source: Federation of Family Planning Centers of Socialist Provident Women ASBL<\/p><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Is it really still necessary to recall the extreme fragility of laws and the fact that they are never permanently established, constantly being threatened by opposition movements, repeated questioning and attacks? Today\u2019s news is sadly full of examples that illustrate the erosion of rights that we imagined to be definitively acquired: abortion, freedom of expression, protection of personal data, social rights, immigrant rights, etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Toolbox<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How can history report the emergence, expiry and transformation of laws? How can we describe the process? What sources and methodological tools can we use? Who are the parties involved in this lengthy and complex history? These questions are the foundations of the book <a href=\"https:\/\/www.lgdj.fr\/histoires-contemporaines-du-droit-9782247192359.html\"><i>Histoires contemporaines du droit<\/i><\/a> (Contemporary histories of law), co-authored with Anne-Sophie Chambost (Sciences Po Lyon) and Jean-Louis Halp\u00e9rin (ENS Ulm). Unlike conventional manuals, this book does not provide a chronological review of the subjugation of laws and the organisation of legal institutions since the early 19th century. There are plenty of other, often excellent, books that already do this. Based on a selection of legal issues, this book reviews the research, presents the historiographic challenges and points out the blind spots, as well as suggesting new areas to be considered or examined more closely. It thus constitutes a reasoned overview of historical research, attentive to the multiplicity of questions and the diversity of methods, which is why the plural \u201chistories\u201d is used in the title. Each chapter presents an interdisciplinary bibliography and finishes with a brief research guide, listing dictionaries, reviews, databases, etc.<br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The book presents the history of legal norms, professionals of the law, legal dogmatics, uses of law and the political history of law. It also pays particular attention to a variety of traditional legal activities: judgement, law-making, administration and teaching. It focuses on how French and foreign research has approached and renewed these different domains. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Beyond the Law-maker, Other Sources, Other Players<\/span><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_10937\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10937\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10937 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-300x188.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"188\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-300x188.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-1024x640.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-768x480.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-234x146.jpg 234w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-50x31.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq-120x75.jpg 120w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/image_processing20201130-15131-nsx6bq.jpg 1200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10937\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Parisian Youth Council \u00a9 Fran\u00e7ois Lafite \/ City of Paris<\/p><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Let\u2019s look at an example. The history of law traditionally concerns the evolution of the various constitutional bodies of a State (government, Senate, National Assembly, etc.) and the institutional layers involved in the legislative procedure. However, in recent years, researchers have been taking a broader look at the law-making process. Parliament is no longer seen as an exclusive figure, working independently and separately from the outside world: it is connected and linked to social demands, to a political and media agenda and even to parties with often contradicting interests. Thanks to historical sociology and the analysis of public policies, the study of \u201claw-makers\u201d is now combined with the study of a large number of different players. Although they are not involved in the actual formulation of a law, they are considered as \u201cnear-legislators\u201d. At the same time, the historical scope of law has been extended to include regulations, \u201cprivate interest\u201d laws, legislative styles (comparing different regimes and different countries) and textual concoctions used as a basis for legislative developments. Ultimately, the analysis of the entire legislative landscape, comprising norms, procedures, elected representatives, citizens, passions, ambitions and crises, has been expanded and animated. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">History, Beyond Law but Through Law<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The history of law is traditionally seen as a discipline designed within law faculties, with its own teaching staff, specific qualifications, and specialised reviews and colloquiums. <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10940\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10940\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-10940\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Cartouche_facade_Universite_Pantheon-Assas-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Cartouche_facade_Universite_Pantheon-Assas-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Cartouche_facade_Universite_Pantheon-Assas-195x146.jpg 195w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Cartouche_facade_Universite_Pantheon-Assas-50x38.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Cartouche_facade_Universite_Pantheon-Assas-100x75.jpg 100w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/Cartouche_facade_Universite_Pantheon-Assas.jpg 640w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10940\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Facult\u00e9 de droit de l&#8217;Universit\u00e9 de Paris 1 Panth\u00e9on Sorbonne. Cr\u00e9dits image : Heurtelions, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Flickr<\/p><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This has ultimately meant that the discipline has long remained the exclusive domain of legal professionals who saw it, and all too often continue to do so, as an instrument for analysing applicable law. This situation has kept non-legal specialists at bay, thus contributing to the domination of purely judicial concerns in its writing. However, times have changed and the history of law is now considered in terms of a dialogue with other fields of knowledge. Although this book is proud to have a solid legal foundation, it is not confined to the circle of the law and makes a number of detours into other disciplines. It contains a large portion of comparatism, teachings of political history and resources proposed by social science. The goal is to further the historical analysis of law not only using comparative approaches of\u00a0 law beyond our western tradition, but also thanks to the progress offered by the sociology of public action, science studies, critical theories of law and cause lawyering<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(3)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cause Lawyering : Sarat Austin, Scheingold Stuart, \u00a0<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.persee.fr\/doc\/polix_0295-2319_2003_num_16_62_1275\">Quelques \u00e9claircissements sur l&#8217;invention du cause lawyering. Entretien avec Austin Sarat, Stuart Scheingold<\/a><\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&#8220;, Politix, n\u00b062 (La cause du droit), 2003<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, to cite just these examples.<br \/>\n<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The perspective presented also invites review of some of the premises of the history of law, as it is generally practised in Europe. The writing of a <i>national<\/i> history of law (which has sometimes been associated with a form of legal nationalism) can no longer ignore the issues raised by transnational dimensions and worldwide history. For example, writing the history of French law does not mean purely and simply ignoring the constant circulation of ideas, people and models beyond our national borders.\u00a0 Similarly, writing the contemporary history of law does not mean considering a tradition as a fundamental truth. \u201cBelonging to the Romano-canonical tradition&#8221; or &#8220;Belonging to the civilist tradition\u201d (as opposed to the Common Law tradition) is not sufficient to define its limits: there are many ways of taking into account the past, referring to it, reactivating it or ignoring it. The history of law as written by legal professionals is often accused of favouring a conservative view of society, rather than an investigation into its origins and a search for invisible continuities. Our contemporary histories are primarily an invitation to recognise the bifurcation of institutional trajectories, the plurality of legal timescales, and the instigation of new political perspectives.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4>Legal Professionals in Direct Contact with Society<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_10944\" style=\"width: 218px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/fr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ni_juge,_ni_soumise\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10944\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10944 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-208x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"208\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-208x300.jpg 208w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-711x1024.jpg 711w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-768x1106.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-1067x1536.jpg 1067w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-101x146.jpg 101w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-35x50.jpg 35w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093-52x75.jpg 52w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/6c6749f0f81b975bbeec8b811fa27685fd556093.jpg 1111w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 208px) 100vw, 208px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-10944\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Affiche du film documentaire &#8220;Ni juge, ni soumise&#8221; r\u00e9alis\u00e9 par Jean Libon et Yves Hinant, 2017<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The past few years have seen a marked trend towards considering legal professionals as more than just simple \u201cguardians of collective hypocrisy\u201d <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_11168_1('footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(4)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Pierre Bourdieu, \u00ab Les juristes, gardiens de l\u2019hypocrisie collective \u00bb, in Fran\u00e7ois Chazel et Jacques Commaille (dir.) <a href=\"https:\/\/ds.hypotheses.org\/1803\">Normes juridiques et r\u00e9gulation sociale<\/a>, LGDJ, coll. \u00ab Droit et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 \u00bb, 1991<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_11168_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">or the armed branch of state domination. The critical approach has exhausted itself, opening up the possibility of new views on the activities of legal professionals. We do not intend to present a historiography of the various legal professions (lawyer, magistrate, notary, professor of law, etc.) or of the diversity of their roles within the legal system. This subject has long been a topic of interest and much has been published in this field already. We found it more original to examine other more transversal, although more discreet, activities. More ordinary positions that illustrate the flesh and consistency of legal professionals, which are all too often considered as pure mechanics, ventriloquists of the law and power. The book recalls the capacity of these professionals to intervene as experts in public matters (legal professionals), the efforts of some stakeholders to build a reputation or an authority in the legal domain (leading legal professionals), the energy that others put into leaving their offices, courts or chairs to explore new territories, even new continents, learning from these experiences new ways of understanding and thinking the law (travelling legal professionals). All legal professionals spend a lot of time writing: writing decisions and conclusions, writing articles and treaties, producing consultations, etc. (writer legal professionals). <\/span><\/p>\n<p>This overview of the life of the law since the end of the 18th century might be disconcerting for some readers who are reassured by the certainties and stability of the institutional history; however, we hope that the contemporary histories of law will become clearer and more interesting through these new questions, resources and methods.<\/p>\n<p><em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ecole-de-droit\/en\/profile\/audren-frederic.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Audren<\/a><\/em> is a CNRS Senior researcher in the Centre for European studies and comparative Politics and a professor at the Sciences Po Law School. His work concerns the history of legal and judicial professions and knowledge. <a href=\"https:\/\/spire.sciencespo.fr\/auteur\/2441\/5k7940uimfdf9c8990p900c2l\">View his publications<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"idea_box\"><div class=\"icon\"><i class=\"icon-lamp\"><\/i><\/div><div class=\"desc\">Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Audren, Anne-Sophie Chambost, Jean-Louis Halp\u00e9rin, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.boutique-dalloz.fr\/histoires-contemporaines-du-droit-p.html\"><i>Histoires contemporaines du droit<\/i><\/a><i>, <\/i>M\u00e9thodes du droit, Dalloz, 2020\u00a0<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_11168_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_11168_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_11168_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_11168_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_11168_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">New article 515-14 (created by law no. 2015-177 of 16 February 2015 &#8211; art. 2): \u201cAnimals are sentient living beings. Subject to the specific laws that protect them, animals are governed by property laws.\u201d<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_11168_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">i.e. The processes intended to ensure that an organisation and its members comply with the legal and ethical standards applicable to them.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_11168_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cause Lawyering : Sarat Austin, Scheingold Stuart, \u00a0<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.persee.fr\/doc\/polix_0295-2319_2003_num_16_62_1275\">Quelques \u00e9claircissements sur l&#8217;invention du cause lawyering. Entretien avec Austin Sarat, Stuart Scheingold<\/a><\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&#8220;, Politix, n\u00b062 (La cause du droit), 2003<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_11168_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_11168_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_11168_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Pierre Bourdieu, \u00ab Les juristes, gardiens de l\u2019hypocrisie collective \u00bb, in Fran\u00e7ois Chazel et Jacques Commaille (dir.) <a href=\"https:\/\/ds.hypotheses.org\/1803\">Normes juridiques et r\u00e9gulation sociale<\/a>, LGDJ, coll. \u00ab Droit et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 \u00bb, 1991<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_11168_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_11168_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_11168_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_11168_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_11168_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_11168_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_11168_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_11168_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_11168_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_11168_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_11168_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_11168_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_11168_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_11168_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>New Trends, New Methods by Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Audren, Law School In 2017, the tribes living along the banks of the Whanganui river, the third-largest in New<span class=\"excerpt-hellip\"> [\u2026]<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":11020,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[33,274],"tags":[74],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11168\/?lang=en"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/?lang=en"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post\/?lang=en"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3\/?lang=en"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments\/?lang=en&post=11168"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11168\/revisions\/?lang=en"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":11181,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/11168\/revisions\/11181\/?lang=en"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/11020\/?lang=en"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/?lang=en&parent=11168"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories\/?lang=en&post=11168"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags\/?lang=en&post=11168"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}