{"id":10242,"date":"2020-11-16T10:30:59","date_gmt":"2020-11-16T08:30:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/?p=10242"},"modified":"2020-11-23T18:48:24","modified_gmt":"2020-11-23T16:48:24","slug":"when-constitutional-law-imagines-foreigners","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/home\/when-constitutional-law-imagines-foreigners\/?lang=en","title":{"rendered":"When Constitutional Law Imagines Foreigners"},"content":{"rendered":"<h4>A Comparative Cultural Analysis of Columbian and American Jurisprudence<\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><em>by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ecole-de-droit\/en\/profile\/imbert-louis.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Louis Imbert<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p>Foreigners are not exempt from the vision of the law proposed by American anthropologist Clifford Geertz, who claimed that it is simply \u201ca specific manner of imagining reality\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(1)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective \u00bb, in Clifford Geertz, <i>Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology<\/i>, Basic Books, 1983, p. 173.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. While the foreigner as a figure is certainly a social construct, law plays a fundamental role in this construction<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(2)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Dani\u00e8le Lochak, <i>\u00c9trangers : de quel droit ?<\/i>, PUF, 1985, p. 7-8.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10173\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10173\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10173\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_1508355056.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"223\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_1508355056.jpg 500w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_1508355056-300x191.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_1508355056-230x146.jpg 230w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_1508355056-50x32.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_1508355056-118x75.jpg 118w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10173\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u00a9 Jorm S, Shutterstock<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Legal categories make the distinction between nationals and foreigners as well as between foreigners both natural and legitimate. They have considerable symbolic effects, beyond the impact they have on the daily lives of these foreigners<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(3)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">S\u00e9gol\u00e8ne Barbou des Places, \u00ab Les \u00e9trangers \u2018saisis\u2019 par le droit : Enjeux de l\u2019\u00e9dification des cat\u00e9gories juridiques de migrants \u00bb, <i>Migrations Soci\u00e9t\u00e9<\/i>, vol. 128, n\u00b0 2, 2010, p. 33-49<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Law thus defines \u201csymbolic borders\u201d that enable the \u201cconstruction of a fictitious community\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(4)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Marie-Laure Basilien-Gainche, \u00ab Les fronti\u00e8res europ\u00e9ennes. Quand le migrant incarne la limite \u00bb, <i>Revue de l\u2019Union europ\u00e9enne<\/i>, n\u00b0 609, juin 2017, p. 7. See also Michael Scaperlanda, \u00ab Partial Membership: Aliens and the Constitutional Community \u00bb, <i>Iowa Law Review<\/i>, vol. 81, n\u00b0 3, mars 1996, p. 707-773<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. This observation is highlighted by analysis of constitutional jurisprudence in the field of immigration. There are many examples of legal discourses on foreigners that are intended to justify the specific solutions designed for them. The power of such discourses with respect to the construct of the foreigner is all the more striking when compared according to a cultural approach.<\/p>\n<h4>Compare to Explain<\/h4>\n<p>According to the cultural approach adopted herein, the law is considered as a specific \u201csymbolic form\u201d, just like art or religion. It does not merely reflect a \u201cstyle of social existence\u201d, it helps to define it<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(5)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective \u00bb, <i>op. cit.<\/i>, p.\u00a0218.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Cultural analysis thus aims to produce a \u201cdense description\u201d of the meanings constructed by law<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(6)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">This approach means delving into a specific context to discover a \u201cmultiplicity of complex conceptual structures, many of them superimposed upon or knotted into one another, which are at once strange, irregular, and inexplicit, and which [the ethnographer] must contrive somehow first to grasp and then to render\u201d (Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Thick Description: Towards an Interpretive Theory of Culture \u00bb, in Clifford Geertz, <i>The Interpretation of Cultures<\/i>, Basic Books, 1973, p. 10). See also Paul W. Kahn, <i>The Cultural Study of Law: Reconstructing Legal Scholarship<\/i>, University of Chicago Press, 1999. For a study of the \u201cformulation of modes of existence\u201d in European immigration law, see. Lo\u00efc Azoulai, \u00ab Le droit europ\u00e9en de l\u2019immigration, une analyse existentielle \u00bb, <i>R.T.D. Eur.<\/i>, 2018, p. 519-539. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Comparison is one of the best ways of doing this. Even if the law \u201coperates under local knowledge\u201d, comparing legal discourses of different origins improves our understanding: \u201cone lightens what the other darkens\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(7)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective \u00bb, <i>op. cit.<\/i>, p. 167 et 233. Voy. \u00e9galement G\u00fcnter Frankenberg, <i>Comparative Law as Critique<\/i>, Edward Elgar, 2016. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10175\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10175\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-10175\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_696463801-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_696463801-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_696463801-219x146.jpg 219w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_696463801-50x33.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_696463801-112x75.jpg 112w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_696463801.jpg 500w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10175\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u00a9 ImageFlow, Shutterstock<\/p><\/div>\n<p>In this light, we can compare the jurisprudential treatment of immigration in the USA and Columbia.<\/p>\n<h4>Two Countries, Two Legal Configurations<\/h4>\n<p>In the USA, immigration has been a major issue for years and has been the subject of countless Supreme Court cases since the last quarter of the 19th century. The interest of the American jurisprudential construction notably resides in the early and persistent recognition by the Supreme Court of the <i>plenary power<\/i>, i.e. of very broad scope, of the legislative and administrative authorities in all matters relating to immigration (entry, residence and deportation). This results in very restricted judiciary power over the decisions of these authorities.<br \/>\nIn contrast, Colombia has long been a country primarily of emigration and the issues related to welcoming immigrants are recent ones. Examination of the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court of Colombia, innovative and progressive in many areas, shifts the centre of the analysis, while most comparative studies on constitutional and immigration law are almost exclusively focussed on the same systems of the northern hemisphere (principally Europe and North America).<\/p>\n<h4>USA, Pioneer of the Legal Construct of the Foreigner<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_10177\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10177\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10177\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_982698921.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"453\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_982698921.jpg 331w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_982698921-199x300.jpg 199w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_982698921-97x146.jpg 97w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_982698921-33x50.jpg 33w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/shutterstock_982698921-50x75.jpg 50w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10177\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">United States Supreme Court \u00a9 Orhan Cam\/Shutterstock<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The difference between nationals and foreigners is still significant today in US constitutional law. While the former have a permanent right to enter and reside on the national territory, the latter find themselves in an ambiguous legal situation, that critical American studies on this topic have described using terms such as \u201cstrangers to the Constitution\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(8)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gerald Neuman, <i>Strangers to the Constitution: Immigrants, Borders and Fundamental Law<\/i>, Princeton University Press, 1996.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, \u201cimpossible subjects\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(9)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Mae Ngai, <i>Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America<\/i>, Princeton University Press, 2014.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and even \u201cnonpersons\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(10)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Kevin R. Johnson, \u00ab \u2018Aliens\u2019 and U.S. Immigration Laws: The Social and Legal Construction of Nonpersons \u00bb, <i>University of Miami Inter-American Law Review<\/i>, vol. 28, n\u00b0 2, hiver 1996-1997, p. 263-292. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. One of the particularities of these legal subjects is their deportability, because they are always liable to be deported from the national territory<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(11)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nicholas de Genova, \u00ab Migrant \u2018Illegality\u2019 and Deportability in Everyday Life \u00bb, <i>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/i>, vol. 31, 2002, p. 419-447 ; Abdelmalek Sayad, \u00ab\u00a0Immigration et \u2018pens\u00e9e d\u2019Etat\u2019\u00a0\u00bb, in <i>La double absence. Des illusions de l\u2019\u00e9migr\u00e9 aux souffrances de l\u2019immigr\u00e9<\/i>, Seuil, coll. \u00ab Points \u00bb, 1999, pp. 507-508.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1889 \u201cChinese Exclusion Case\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States\"><i>Chae Chan Ping v. United States<\/i><\/a>), the Supreme Court ruled that the \u201cpower of exclusion of foreigners\u201d was an \u201cincident of sovereignty belonging to the government of the United States as part of those sovereign powers delegated by the constitution\u201d. It considered that the claim \u201cwas not a matter for judicial cognizance\u201d and that knowing that \u201cthe government of the United States, through the action of the legislative department, can exclude aliens from its territory\u201d was not a fact \u201copen to controversy\u201d. A logical and obvious power.<br \/>\nIn the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nishimura_Ekiu_v._United_States\"><i>Nishimura Ekiu v. United States<\/i><\/a> (1892) decision, the Court confirmed this position, ruling that \u201cIt is an accepted maxim of international law that every sovereign nation has the power, as inherent in sovereignty, and essential to self-preservation, to forbid the entrance of foreigners within its dominions, or to admit them only in such cases and upon such conditions as it may see fit to prescribe\u201d.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10125\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10125\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10125\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-300x163.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"190\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-300x163.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-1024x556.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-768x417.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-260x141.jpg 260w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-50x27.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1-138x75.jpg 138w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Chinese-Irish-German-immigration-Thomas-Nast-Harpers-Weekly-July-23-1870-1068x580-1.jpg 1068w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10125\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cartoon by Thomas Nast in Harper&#8217;s Weekly about Chinese Exclusion, 1882<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Finally, in 1893, in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States\"><i>Fong Yue Ting v. United States<\/i><\/a> case, the Court extended its reasoning beyond the entry of foreigners to include their deportation. It considered that \u201cThe right to exclude or to expel all aliens, or any class of aliens, absolutely or upon certain conditions, in war or in peace, [is] an inherent and inalienable right of every sovereign and independent nation, essential to its safety, its independence, and its welfare<br \/>\nThese three decisions, made within a few years of one another, form the foundations of the doctrine of \u201cplenary power\u201d, that was repeatedly confirmed throughout the next century. In 1972, the Supreme Court reiterated that \u201cOver no conceivable subject is the legislative power of Congress more complete than it is over the admissions of aliens\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kleindienst_v._Mandel\"><i>Kleindienst v. Mandel<\/i><\/a>). It was reaffirmed again, in 2018, to justify the very rigorous controls of the \u201cMuslim Ban\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trump_v._Hawaii\"><i>Trump v. Hawaii<\/i><\/a>)<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(12)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">The \u201c<i>Muslim Ban\u201d<\/i> refers to a series of decisions made by President Donald Trump in 2017 to limit entry to the US territory by nationals from a number of countries whose populations are largely Muslim. The Supreme Court cleverly avoided the issue of religious discrimination by wielding the doctrine of \u201cplenary power\u201d. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>. Thus, in spite of strong doctrinal opposition to the principle of plenary power, it has remained largely intact, with the exception of a few inflections. Incidentally, this jurisprudence has had a considerable influence in many other countries since the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<h4>Colombia, an Inverted Mirror?<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_10131\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10131\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10131\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/640px-Welcome_to_Colombia_2_sign.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/640px-Welcome_to_Colombia_2_sign.jpg 640w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/640px-Welcome_to_Colombia_2_sign-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/640px-Welcome_to_Colombia_2_sign-195x146.jpg 195w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/640px-Welcome_to_Colombia_2_sign-50x38.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/640px-Welcome_to_Colombia_2_sign-100x75.jpg 100w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10131\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Welcome to Colombia sign, after passing thru immigration controls. 8 September 2011. Cr\u00e9dits : Guillec96, CC BY-SA 3.0<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Although Colombia could hardly be considered as an immigration country until recently (in fact, the opposite was true), the issue of migration has become increasingly pressing in the past few years, notably due to the massive influx of Venezuelans escaping from the growing humanitarian and political crisis in their homeland. Almost one and a half million Venezuelans now live in Colombia.<\/p>\n<p>Although the response of this new host country may legitimately raise some criticism, it corresponds, more or less, to an inverted mirror image of European and North American immigration policies. Aside from the mass regularisations implemented by the administrative authorities, the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court of Colombia, recently held up as an example by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and by several entities of the United Nations, is of particular interest in this matter.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Court constantly recognises a discretionary power (not without limits) to the legislative and executive powers with regard to immigration, two recent decisions offer a striking contrast with the USA and Europe in the terms of the reasoning adopted by the constitutional judges, in a context unanimously referred to as an immigration crisis. In its decisions of 15 November 2017 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.corteconstitucional.gov.co\/relatoria\/2017\/SU677-17.htm\">SU677\/17<\/a>) and 1 June 2018 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.corteconstitucional.gov.co\/relatoria\/2018\/t-210-18.htm\">T-210\/18<\/a>), the Court examined cases brought against the administrative authorities by irregular Venezuelan nationals complaining that they were unable to access free health services because of their administrative status. Adopting the exact opposite position to that applied for decades by supreme jurisdictions, administrative authorities and legislators in North America and Europe<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(13)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_13\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See Louis Imbert, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.revuedlf.com\/droit-fondamentaux\/dossier\/du-palais-des-droits-de-lhomme-au-palais-royal-chronique-dun-renoncement-jurisprudentiel-face-a-largument-de-la-crise-migratoire\/\">\u00ab\u00a0Du Palais des Droits de l\u2019Homme au Palais-Royal\u00a0: chronique d\u2019un renoncement jurisprudentiel face \u00e0 l\u2019argument de la crise migratoire\u00a0\u00bb<\/a>, <i>RDLF <\/i>2019 chron. 38. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>, the Colombian Court considered that a crisis situation (described here as humanitarian) reinforced\u2014rather than limited\u2014the protection of the fundamental rights (the right to healthcare in this particular case) of the Venezuelan nationals present in Colombia, even and above all those without documentation. The Court particularly insisted on the duty of solidarity of the national community, citing articles 1 and 95 of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">the 1991 Constitution.<\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10139\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10139\" decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-10139\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"233\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau.jpg 945w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau-219x146.jpg 219w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau-50x33.jpg 50w, https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/research\/cogito\/wp-content\/uploads\/2002\/11\/UNHCR__Vincent_Tremeau-113x75.jpg 113w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-10139\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Venezuelan people cross the border to get to Colombia. Cr\u00e9dits photo ; UNHCR\/ Vincent Tremeau<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The Court also identified the current difficulties of Venezuelan citizens to obtain passports in their country and deduced that, in practice, Colombian immigration rules made it difficult for them to rectify their situations, thus making it impossible for them to sign up for the social security system to access healthcare. However, this position is a paradox in itself. On the one hand, the Court determined that the foreign nationals had a duty to comply with immigration law. On the other, it also claimed that this same legislation made foreigners vulnerable by trapping them in illegal situations. Thus, two radically different approaches\u2014one of control, the other of protection\u2014come head to head, without either prevailing entirely.<\/p>\n<p>In any case, the striking contrast with the protectionism observed elsewhere in situations of \u201cmassive inflows\u201d highlights the extent to which the approach adopted to a situation perceived as an immigration crisis is actually a deliberate choice by a judge. Far from being neutral, this choice reflects a certain conception of foreigners and the hospitality to be extended to them. Thus, our complex, changing and sometimes contradictory perceptions of foreigners are built and rebuilt over and over by these legal decisions, notably through the constant redefinition of the meanings associated with foreigners in our constitutional jurisprudence<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_10242_1('footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">(14)<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_14\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">On the concept of legal perceptions, see Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Kerl\u00e9o, \u00ab L\u2019imaginaire : un outil m\u00e9thodologique d\u2019analyse du droit \u00bb, <i>Revue internationale de s\u00e9miotique juridique<\/i>, vol. 28, n\u00b0 2, juin 2015, p. 359-370. <\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_10242_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>.<\/p>\n<pre><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ecole-de-droit\/en\/profile\/imbert-louis.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Louis Imbert<\/a> has been a doctoral student of the law school since 2017 and an ATER (temporary research and teaching assistant) in public law at CY Cergy Paris University since 2020. His thesis, entitled \u201cThe constitution of foreigners: comparative analysis of discourses of constitutional judges (Columbia, USA, France)\u201d is supervised by professors <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ecole-de-droit\/fr\/profile\/tusseau-guillaume.html\">Guillaume Tusseau<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/cesice.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr\/centre\/membres\/serge-slama\">Serge Slama<\/a>. Louis is the author of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencespo.fr\/ecole-de-droit\/fr\/profile\/imbert-louis.html\">several publications on immigration law<\/a>.<\/pre>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_10242_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_10242_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_10242_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_10242_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective \u00bb, in Clifford Geertz, <i>Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology<\/i>, Basic Books, 1983, p. 173.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Dani\u00e8le Lochak, <i>\u00c9trangers : de quel droit ?<\/i>, PUF, 1985, p. 7-8.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">S\u00e9gol\u00e8ne Barbou des Places, \u00ab Les \u00e9trangers \u2018saisis\u2019 par le droit : Enjeux de l\u2019\u00e9dification des cat\u00e9gories juridiques de migrants \u00bb, <i>Migrations Soci\u00e9t\u00e9<\/i>, vol. 128, n\u00b0 2, 2010, p. 33-49<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Marie-Laure Basilien-Gainche, \u00ab Les fronti\u00e8res europ\u00e9ennes. Quand le migrant incarne la limite \u00bb, <i>Revue de l\u2019Union europ\u00e9enne<\/i>, n\u00b0 609, juin 2017, p. 7. See also Michael Scaperlanda, \u00ab Partial Membership: Aliens and the Constitutional Community \u00bb, <i>Iowa Law Review<\/i>, vol. 81, n\u00b0 3, mars 1996, p. 707-773<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective \u00bb, <i>op. cit.<\/i>, p.\u00a0218.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">This approach means delving into a specific context to discover a \u201cmultiplicity of complex conceptual structures, many of them superimposed upon or knotted into one another, which are at once strange, irregular, and inexplicit, and which [the ethnographer] must contrive somehow first to grasp and then to render\u201d (Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Thick Description: Towards an Interpretive Theory of Culture \u00bb, in Clifford Geertz, <i>The Interpretation of Cultures<\/i>, Basic Books, 1973, p. 10). See also Paul W. Kahn, <i>The Cultural Study of Law: Reconstructing Legal Scholarship<\/i>, University of Chicago Press, 1999. For a study of the \u201cformulation of modes of existence\u201d in European immigration law, see. Lo\u00efc Azoulai, \u00ab Le droit europ\u00e9en de l\u2019immigration, une analyse existentielle \u00bb, <i>R.T.D. Eur.<\/i>, 2018, p. 519-539. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Clifford Geertz, \u00ab Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective \u00bb, <i>op. cit.<\/i>, p. 167 et 233. Voy. \u00e9galement G\u00fcnter Frankenberg, <i>Comparative Law as Critique<\/i>, Edward Elgar, 2016. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Gerald Neuman, <i>Strangers to the Constitution: Immigrants, Borders and Fundamental Law<\/i>, Princeton University Press, 1996.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Mae Ngai, <i>Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America<\/i>, Princeton University Press, 2014.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Kevin R. Johnson, \u00ab \u2018Aliens\u2019 and U.S. Immigration Laws: The Social and Legal Construction of Nonpersons \u00bb, <i>University of Miami Inter-American Law Review<\/i>, vol. 28, n\u00b0 2, hiver 1996-1997, p. 263-292. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nicholas de Genova, \u00ab Migrant \u2018Illegality\u2019 and Deportability in Everyday Life \u00bb, <i>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/i>, vol. 31, 2002, p. 419-447 ; Abdelmalek Sayad, \u00ab\u00a0Immigration et \u2018pens\u00e9e d\u2019Etat\u2019\u00a0\u00bb, in <i>La double absence. Des illusions de l\u2019\u00e9migr\u00e9 aux souffrances de l\u2019immigr\u00e9<\/i>, Seuil, coll. \u00ab Points \u00bb, 1999, pp. 507-508.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">The \u201c<i>Muslim Ban\u201d<\/i> refers to a series of decisions made by President Donald Trump in 2017 to limit entry to the US territory by nationals from a number of countries whose populations are largely Muslim. The Supreme Court cleverly avoided the issue of religious discrimination by wielding the doctrine of \u201cplenary power\u201d. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_13');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_13\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See Louis Imbert, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.revuedlf.com\/droit-fondamentaux\/dossier\/du-palais-des-droits-de-lhomme-au-palais-royal-chronique-dun-renoncement-jurisprudentiel-face-a-largument-de-la-crise-migratoire\/\">\u00ab\u00a0Du Palais des Droits de l\u2019Homme au Palais-Royal\u00a0: chronique d\u2019un renoncement jurisprudentiel face \u00e0 l\u2019argument de la crise migratoire\u00a0\u00bb<\/a>, <i>RDLF <\/i>2019 chron. 38. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_10242_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_10242_1_14');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_10242_1_14\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">On the concept of legal perceptions, see Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Kerl\u00e9o, \u00ab L\u2019imaginaire : un outil m\u00e9thodologique d\u2019analyse du droit \u00bb, <i>Revue internationale de s\u00e9miotique juridique<\/i>, vol. 28, n\u00b0 2, juin 2015, p. 359-370. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_10242_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_10242_1').show(); 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